Dart: a historical look at the varieties of ancient throwing weapons

The dart is a lightweight spear designed primarily for throwing purposes and was historically used as a ranged weapon. Today it is used only in sports competitions. The javelin was almost always a throwing weapon and was thrown only with the hands, unlike bows and arrows and slingshots, which use a mechanism to fire projectiles. However, there are also devices that help spearmen throw over longer distances. The Roman throwing spear is called a pilum.

The original term "javelin" comes from Middle English, as well as from the old French "javelin", a diminutive of "javelot", the term meaning "spear". The word "javelot" probably comes from one of the Celtic languages.

Prehistoric times

There is archaeological evidence that darts and throwing sticks were already in use during the last stage of the Early Paleolithic. Seven dart-like objects were found in a coal mine in Schöningen, Germany. Stratigraphic dating indicates that the weapon is approximately 400,000 years old. The excavated objects were made of spruce and had a length of between 1.83 and 2.25 m. The shafts of these spears had increased thickness and weight at the front end of the spear. The center of gravity shifted towards the tip suggests that this polearm was used as a throwing weapon. The fossilized remains of a horse shot in the shoulder approximately 500,000 years ago were discovered in a gravel pit in Boxgrow, England. Researchers suggested that the wound was caused by a dart.

Varieties of darts

Throwing functions are the main ones for darts, and their forms were also different among different peoples at different times. Such weapons were familiar to the Zulus in the form of assegais. Most often it was a poisonous dart for hunting. Chinese biao, flying up to 25 m, weighing 100 grams and had a length of 12 cm. Jerids, Asian darts, were one and a half meters long. The Greek dart was the same length.

Perhaps one of the most famous types of darts are harpoons, the ends of which are equipped with spikes. For example, there are Indian Narcha darts, which have sharp tips sharpened in a special way. Throwing darts of this type led to them becoming firmly stuck in the enemy's shields. Their tip was up to one meter, and the shaft, which was not easily cut, was up to one and a half, two meters long.

The Germanic tribes used a one and a half meter frame. The Italian, one-and-a-half meter corsece dart had jagged points attached to its sharp tip, extending in different directions. This made the Corsican dart similar to a harpoon. He also had his own, Russian dart, called sulitsa. It had a very thin handle.

All of the above varieties of throwing weapons - darts - demonstrate their most diverse modifications. Ancient "engineers" sought to achieve maximum effectiveness in battles using darts. A wide variety of mechanisms were invented to improve their tactical and technical characteristics, for example, in the form of a rope or an atlatl.

Belts were also used, which made it possible to throw darts over considerable distances, sometimes even up to two hundred meters. On some types, checks were attached so that the rope could be tied conveniently. With ribbons attached to the ends of the darts, darts were thrown more accurately. It is possible that such plumage for darts became the basis for modern designs.

Ancient Greece

Peltasts typically served as skirmishers and were armed with several javelins. Also, representatives of this type of Greek light infantry often carried throwing belts with them to increase the range and power of their throws. Peltasts fired darts at the enemy's heavy troops, mainly hoplite phalanxes, in order to break the enemy's formation, after which the heavy allied troops could more effectively destroy other weakened formations. At the Battle of Lechaea, the Athenian general Iphicrates took advantage of the fact that the Spartan hoplite phalanx stationed near Corinth was moving across open ground and without protection from any troops using long-range guns. He decided to lure this phalanx into an ambush, using the strengths of the peltasts. Using repeated lightning attacks on the Spartan formations, Iphicrates and his men were able to push the Spartans back, eventually directing their movement. Thus, almost half of the phalanx was killed. This was the first case recorded in ancient Greek military history in which a group consisting entirely of peltasts was able to defeat a hoplite formation.

Thureophores and Torakitai, who gradually replaced the peltasts, carried javelins in addition to long war spears and a short sword.

Darts were often used as an effective hunting weapon, the belt adding enough force to allow large game to be taken. Darts were also used in the ancient Olympic and other Panhellenic games. They were thrown in a certain direction and the one who threw the dart further - the distance that the projectile flew before it stuck into the ground was taken into account - won the competition.

What are the types of darts?

There are many varieties of the game. Differences appear in accessories, and therefore the following categories are distinguished:

Rome

Republic and early empire

In 387 BC. The Gauls invaded Italy, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Roman Republican army and sacked Rome. Following this defeat, the Romans undertook comprehensive reforms of their army and changed the basic tactical formation from a Greek-style phalanx armed with spears and round clypeus shields to a more flexible three-line formation. The hastati stood in the first line, the principles in the second and the triarii in the third. While the triarii still armed themselves in the old way, the hastati and principi were rearmed with short swords and heavy spears. Each soldier of the Hastati and Princip lines carried two spears. This heavy spear, known as a pilum, was about two meters in length. The pilum consisted of an iron rod about 7 mm in diameter and 60 cm long (the tip had a pyramidal shape) attached to a wooden shaft. The iron rod was either smooth along its entire length or, more often, expanded towards the core. The pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms, and there were also lighter versions produced during the Empire. Visual sources indicate that some replica weapons were loaded with a ball at the base of the shaft to increase penetrating power, but no archaeological specimens of this kind have been found. Recent experiments have shown that the pilum has a range of approximately 30 meters, although the effective range is only 15 to 20 meters. Pilum are sometimes called darts, but the archaic term for dart was "verutum". From the third century BC, a new type of skirmisher, the velites, was added to the tactical formation of the Roman legion. These were light infantry formations armed with a short sword (gladius or pugio), a small round shield and several small spears. These spears were called "veruta" (singular "verutum"). The velites usually approached the enemy, hurled javelins into their lines, and then retreated behind the heavy infantry of the legion. Velites were considered very effective in the fight against war elephants, due to the fact that they fired a hail of darts over a small area, rather than representing a kind of “block” that, unlike the infantry formations behind them, could be trampled or otherwise defeated. At the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, the velite spear throwers proved their worth and there was no doubt that they played a decisive role in assisting against Hannibal's herd of war elephants. However, during the reorganization of the army, at the end of the second and beginning of the first century BC, by the decision of Gaius Marius and other Roman generals, the velites were gradually either disbanded or re-equipped into the more heavily armed legionnaires of the time. Their role was more of an irregular and auxiliary force as the republic's borders expanded.

The vertum was a cheaper projectile weapon than the pilum. In fact, this type of spear was a closer combat weapon, the tip of which was made of soft iron. Legionnaires of the late Republic and early Empire often carried two pilums, presumably one spear being lighter than the other. Standard tactics called for a Roman soldier to throw his pilum (both if there was time) at the enemy before using his gladius. Some pilums had small protection for the hands so that the warrior had the opportunity to at least somehow protect himself if he intended to use this type of weapon in close combat. However, this kind of situation was rare.

How to make darts with your own hands

Before you start making a dart, you need to take into account the following details:

• The center of gravity of the propellant ammunition must be balanced. It should be located in the first third of the base of the blown projectile. The balanced center of gravity allows it to fly point forward, and not otherwise.
• Too light a dart body causes it to fly aimlessly and be blown away by the wind. Sometimes too little weight prevents it from sticking into the intended target. The optimal option regarding the body weight of the dart is considered to be 4-7 grams. The actual severity of the blown projectile is determined based on practice, varying the degree of winding of the weighting material during its manufacture.
• The seal must be made of non-hygroscopic material to prevent it from getting wet. The size of the shutter should be such as not to create friction against the internal walls of the wind pipe, thereby reducing the power of the shot.

DIY dart

How to make a dart out of paper

Twisting a paper cone is the simplest type for a projectile shank. To do this, you need to twist a multilayer cone from ordinary A4 paper, gluing the layers with glue until it becomes sufficiently rigid. In this case, the paper layers need to be wound onto some kind of blank in order to subsequently be moved to a point, which can be an ordinary nail or a sewing needle, pin, knitting needle, etc. When the layers are dry, the paper cone is put on the point and tied with thread. Then you need to insert it into the hole in the pipe and cut off the excess. The outside of the cone can be covered with several layers of tape.

How to make a dart from matches

Before making a dart from matches, you should prepare: a needle, thread or wire, four matches, material for the shank (paper, plastic, etc.). The matches will serve as a shaft for the dart; you must first remove the sulfur from them, and sometimes you need to trim them. Next, you need to tie them with thread or thin wire, fixing the tip (needle) and the shank between them, which must first be made. The thread can be impregnated with glue for secure fixation.

Dart made from matches

How to make a dart from a needle

A homemade dart can be made using a syringe needle. In addition to this, you will need three toothpicks and a piece of paper approximately 5x5cm in size. production is very simple: toothpicks are inserted into the tip of a syringe needle, which, in turn, presses the paper tip. The shank is made like this: a paper square is bent in half in one direction, then in the other. The result should be a design resembling an asterisk. Do not forget that the paper needs to be glued with tape or glue so that it does not get wet. In principle, for one-time use, the paper can be left as it is.

Dart from a needle

In addition to the above, there are other ways to make a homemade dart. One of them is a method using a plastic canister, glue, a nail, and some kind of stick. To do this, heat one side of the canister over a fire or stove if the dart is being made at home. When it begins to soften, you need to try to pierce its wall with a stick. Then you need to wait a while until the canister cools down. The place pressed through with a stick must be cut out with a knife. The sharp edge of the workpiece is cut off, and a nail is inserted into this place. The nail should fit into the resulting shank until it stops. Next, the resulting workpiece needs to be tried on the hole of the wind tube, mark the edges for cutting the shank so that it fits into it without hindrance. All excess needs to be cut off and the nail secured inside the plastic cone with glue.

Late Empire

In the late Roman Empire, a different spear similar to the earlier pilum was used by Roman infantry for throwing purposes. This dart was lighter and had a longer range. Called a plumbata, it resembled a thick, short arrow, fletched with leather blades to provide stability and rotation in flight (which provided increased accuracy). To overcome the disadvantage of a relatively small mass, an oval lead weight was installed on the plumbat, as if wrapped around the shaft with the center of balance shifted to the tip, this gave the weapon its name. Despite this heavy construction, plumbats were much lighter than pilums and did not have the effective armor penetration or shield-piercing ability of earlier analogues of this weapon. Two or three plumbats were usually attached to a small wooden bracket on the inside of the large oval or round shields used at the time. Numerous troops unhooked and threw plumbats as the enemy approached, this was done in order to delay the movement and break the morale of the enemy, forcing the warriors of the opposite side to hide behind their shields. Compared to enemies deprived of the ability to move quickly and visibility, which was weakened by the enemy's own raised shields, Roman troops became more mobile, which made it possible to better exploit the tactical situation. Plumbatas were perceived by the Romans not as a throwing weapon that delivered a fatal blow, but rather as a means of stopping the enemy at a greater distance than previously when using a heavier and shorter pilum.

Sleeping pneumatics: injection darts

The most basic, but very popular and quite effective device is the so-called pneumatic dart. For throwing such darts there are “wind throwing devices”. A blow dart can be fired with “blow tubes” or with pneumatic pistols or revolvers.

The kit also includes special syringes. The range reaches fifteen meters. Simply put, these are enlarged modifications of the pipes known from school, with the help of which almost all boys spat balls. Sometimes school craftsmen created such a homemade dart from needles.

Iberia

The Spanish cavalry were light cavalry armed with the falcata and a few light javelins. The Cantabrian tribes invented military tactics to maximize the benefits of the combination between horse and javelin. In this tactic, horsemen rode in a circle, away from the enemy, constantly throwing darts. The tactic was typically used against heavy infantry. The constant movement of horsemen provided an advantage against slow infantry and made the target difficult to reach. The maneuver was designed to harass and taunt enemy forces, breaking up closed ranks.

This type of action was used against enemy infantry, mainly the heavily armed and slow moving Roman legions. This tactic became known as the "Cantabrian circle". At the end of the Republic, various auxiliary cavalry completely replaced the Italian cavalry units and the Spanish auxiliary cavalry was recognized as the best.

Needle, dart point

The needle is usually made of quality steel and must be sharp enough to fit securely into and stay in the target.

There are blunt plastic needles designed for playing electronic or safe darts with special targets.

Safety darts are best suited for children to play without adult supervision.

According to the type of fastening, needles are divided into:

• floating,
• fused,
• removable

The sizes of the tips are:

• short - 18 mm,
• medium - 25 mm,
• long - 36 mm.

Carthage

The Numidians were indigenous tribes of northwestern Africa. The Numidian cavalry was in the form of light cavalry, usually acting as skirmishers. The Numidian horseman was armed with a small shield and several darts. The Numidians had a reputation for being fast horsemen, cunning soldiers, and excellent javelin throwers. It is said that Jugurtha, king of the Numidians "... took part in the national competition, in horsemanship and javelin throwing, competing well with other young athletes in the competition." The Numidian cavalry served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian army and played a key role in helping Hannibal during the Second Punic War.

Body, barrel, spindle of the dart

A dart barrel is made from:

• Some metal alloy in no-name Chinese products
• Brass
• Nickel and silver alloy
• Copper
• Tungsten

Brass darts are the cheapest, since brass itself is a cheap metal, and its processing is not difficult. They are recommended for use by beginners and amateurs.

Darts made of silver-nickel alloys belong to the “middle class”. They are harder, stronger and more expensive than brass, but cheaper than tungsten.

Tungsten darts are considered the best.

Typically, the alloys contain tungsten from 60 to 97%. This is a brittle metal and therefore its processing is more technologically complex than brass.

The density of tungsten is greater than that of previous materials, so a barrel made of it, with the same weight, is thinner than a brass one. This factor is very important for professional players who are going to choose and buy darts for darts in St. Petersburg. In addition, thinner darts can be “placed” more closely on the target.

For amateurs, on the contrary, a thicker barrel is often more comfortable to hold in the hand than a thin one. But this, again, depends on the individual characteristics of the player.

Dart barrels come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.

When choosing a barrel, it is best, of course, if possible, to try throwing darts with different weights and barrel shapes. Then, over time, you yourself will understand what weight and body shape of the dart suits you best.

Middle Ages

Norway

There is a number of literary and archaeological evidence that the Norwegians used the javelin for hunting and military purposes. However, mainly for long-distance combat and as a piercing weapon, the spear was used. The Old Norse word for dart was farakka.

Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxon term "dart" was adopted in France. In Anglo-Saxon wars, soldiers usually built a shield wall and used heavy weapons such as Scandinavian axes, swords, and spears. Darts, including penetrating javelins called angonas, were used as offensive weapons from behind shield walls, and by warriors who separated from the defensive formation and attacked enemies as skirmishers. Constructed to be difficult to draw from flesh or wood, the Angon spear used by Anglo-Saxon warriors was an effective means of incapacitating opponents or their primary means of defense, mainly shield walls. Having a long tip with teeth set back, as well as a long and heavy shaft, when it hit the shield or body of an enemy, the angon would get stuck. If the shield was pierced, then the shaft dragged along the ground. If the thrown angone dug into the enemy’s body, then the curved tips of the tip could not allow him to be pulled out of the wound.

Iberia

The Almogavars were a class of Aragonese infantry, they armed themselves with short swords, a shield and two heavy spears known as "azcona".

This kind of ammunition was reminiscent of the equipment of a Roman legionary; heavy spears were used in the same way.

The Hinete, Arab light horsemen armed with spear, sword and shield, were skilled in bombardment and rapid maneuvers. They played an important role in the Arab Wars and the Reconquista until the sixteenth century.

Norman cavalry, armed with spears, charges the Anglo-Saxon shield wall. Note the predominance of spearmen in the front line of the formation. At the rear of the formation there is one warrior armed with a battle axe, one archer and one javelin thrower. Darts are clearly visible at the moment of flight, as well as dead soldiers on the ground pierced by darts.

Wales

The Welsh (especially North Wales) used the javelin as one of their main weapons. During the Norman and later English invasions, the main Welsh tactic was to throw javelins at tired, hungry and heavily armed English warriors, and then retreat into the mountains or forests before English troops could effectively pursue and attack them. This tactic was very successful, as it demoralized and caused great harm to the English armies, while the Welsh units suffered comparatively fewer casualties.

Rating of quality darts for darts up to 650 rubles

Sprinter 27770079

This set consists of five elements that can be used not only in drinking establishments, but also at home. Product weight – 24 g. Plastic and steel alloy are used to make dart accessories, which indicates an increased service life of the set. The tips are made of steel, so learning to throw them is not the best solution. Standard plumage is used. Supplied in a plastic case, which is not suitable for subsequent storage of equipment. An excellent solution for those people who want to learn how to throw darts and do not want to spend a lot of money on buying professional models. Produced in the Middle Kingdom.

Average price – 639 rubles.

darts Sprinter 27770079

Advantages:

• interchangeability of individual elements;
• ease of subsequent use;
• practicality;
• increased service life;
• budget price.

Flaws:

• not identified.

Yazen Ereta 28205280

This popular model consists of three elements. An excellent solution for a large and noisy company that wants to spend time gambling. The cost of the set is more than affordable, which will allow you to acquire several sets at once. An excellent choice for those just learning to play darts. Lightweight and compact designs are made of plastic and metal alloy. The design consists of several elements that can be replaced if necessary. The tip is well pointed, so you should be extremely careful when playing.

Cost – 696 rubles.

darts Yazen Ereta 28205280

Advantages:

• inexpensive and practical solution for home games;
• increased service life;
• interchangeability of individual elements;
• classical performance;
• numerous positive reviews.

Flaws:

• not identified.

Decathlon 19906591

This inexpensive model is designed for learning to play darts. It is based on the use of a plastic tip, which is ideal for active pastime at home. In case of premature wear, each of the key structural elements can be replaced independently. Weight – 16 g. The shank is made of plastic. A standard plumage form is used. The barrels are coated with steel, which has a beneficial effect on the service life of the set.

Average price – 599 rubles.

darts Decathlon 19906591

Advantages:

• ease of subsequent use;
• the relief coating eliminates the risk of the structure slipping during a throw;
• interchangeability of individual elements;
• Excellent value for money and quality;
• practicality.

Flaws:

• not identified.

IGROLAND 20998033

An inexpensive and practical solution for everyday games with family and friends. With the help of such designs, a person can quickly master the game and improve his hitting skills. The set consists of six elements. Product from a domestic manufacturer. The tips are painted in different colors, which just adds to the fun. Plastic and metal alloy are used for manufacturing. Produced in the Middle Kingdom. The holders are ergonomic, plastic. They fit comfortably in the hand and do not slip out during the throwing process.

Cost – 390 rub.

darts IGROLAND 20998033

Advantages:

• convenient holder;
• equipment;
• increased service life;
• ergonomic shape;
• classical performance;
• practicality.

Flaws:

• not identified.

Nowadays

Africa

Many African tribes have used the javelin as their primary weapon since ancient times. Typical African wars were based on ritual confrontation involving javelin throwers, even without close combat range. The Swaziland flag features a shield and two spears, which symbolize the country's defense from enemies.

Zulu

Zulu warriors used long versions of the assegai spear as their main weapon. The legendary Zulu leader Chaka began military reforms in which a short, sharp spear with a long sword-like tip, called the "iklwa", became the main weapon of the Zulu warrior and was used as a close-combat weapon. The throwing spear was not abandoned; it was used for the initial remote attack. With large shields introduced by Chaka for the Zulu army, spears were used as piercing weapons. These types of attacks by Zulu regiments were very similar to the tactical maneuvers of the Roman legions, which used combinations with the scutum, gladius and pilum.

Rating of quality darts for darts up to 2000 rubles

Sprinter 27770086

One of the best models that can be purchased on Ali Express. Made in China. Available in plastic packaging. Weight – 21 g. A steel alloy is used to make key elements. Auxiliary elements are made of plastic. The set consists of three elements equipped with steel tips. In addition to replaceable holders, there is also a convenient case that can be used for subsequent storage of equipment. Changing the pen holder will allow you to manually adjust the weight of the structure. This is the best set to buy for drinking establishments.

Average price – 1999 rubles.

darts Sprinter 27770086

Advantages:

• product from a famous Chinese manufacturer;
• equipment;
• balance;
• ease of use;
• build quality.

Flaws:

• not identified.

Sprinter 27770088

An indispensable attribute for playing darts is a set of high-quality designs. The needle-shaped tip is made of steel. The barrels have a protective tungsten coating. The tread and shank are made to last. The plumage used is classic. The weight of the structure is 21 g, and its length is 155 mm. Available in plastic packaging, inside of which there are three elements. In addition to a number of interchangeable holders, there is also a case. Produced in the Middle Kingdom.

Cost – 1964 rubles.

darts Sprinter 27770088

Advantages:

• possibility of weight change;
• equipment;
• ease of use;
• practicality;
• the presence of a protective coating.

Flaws:

• The cover cannot be used for subsequent storage of equipment.

Onlitop 27888492

These designs are characterized by the presence of metal tips. The set consists of three elements. Color black. A great solution for having fun with friends. With such equipment, everyone can feel like a winner. The needles may fail over time, but the manufacturer recommends replacing them with others. It is better to buy tips from the same company. All auxiliary components are made of durable plastic. Supplied in plastic packaging. Produced in the Middle Kingdom.

Average price – 840 rubles.

darts Onlitop 27888492

Advantages:

• high quality of assembly and components;
• tips can be replaced after breakage;
• classical performance;
• Excellent value for money and quality;
• ease of use.

Flaws:

• not identified.

Decathlon 19906592

An excellent solution for those people who have decided to practice throwing darts at home. The tip is fragile, plastic. At the same time, it is classified as safe, as it reduces the risk of serious injury. Can also be used in nightclubs or drinking establishments. The barrels are made of brass alloy, which indicates an increased service life of the structure. Can be used to sharpen accuracy. Weight – 16 g. The design consists of three separate elements that can be replaced if necessary. The plumage form is standard.

You can purchase the set at a price of 799 rubles.

darts Decathlon 19906592

Advantages:

• increased ease of use;
• quality of assembly and components;
• practicality;
• safety;
• increased wear resistance;
• interchangeability of individual elements.

Flaws:

not identified.

Mythology

Dart throwing warriors in mythology

Norse mythology

In Norse mythology, Odin, the chief god, carried a spear or javelin called a gungnir. It was created by a group of dwarves known as the "Sons of Ivaldi", who also built a ship called the Skidbladnir and made Sif's golden hair. The spear had the magical property of finding any target. During the final battle of Ragnarok between the gods and the giants, Odin uses Gungnir to attack the wolf Fenrir before it can consume him.

During the war (and subsequent alliance) between the Aesir and the Vanir, at the dawn of time, Odin threw a spear at the enemy leader, which, according to custom, would bring good luck or victory to the thrower. Odin also wounded himself with a spear while hanging from Yggdrasil, the World Tree, in his ritual quest for knowledge. But in neither case is the weapon specifically mentioned as gungnir.

When the god Balder began to have prophetic dreams about his own death, his mother Frigga took an oath from all things in nature so that they would not harm him. However, she neglected the mistletoe, thinking that it was too young a plant for such a solemn oath. When Loki learned of this weakness, he prepared a spear or dart made from a mistletoe branch, tricked the blind god Hod and threw the branch at Balder, killing him.

Crossbows for tranquilizing animals

“Blow pipes,” however, like pneumatic revolvers or pistols, have one common drawback, so to speak. This is sometimes an insufficient range of destruction. In short-barreled weapons, among other things, you can place charges with extremely small volumes of active substances.

With 4.5mm air rifles, you have the ability to operate at greater distances, but this may not be enough in some situations. Large-caliber air rifles, like firearms, will require a ton of permits. For special cases, in order to successfully use a tranquilizing dart, a crossbow can be used.

A few important points and concepts about darts

1. According to accepted standards, the total length of the dart from the tip of the needle to the end of the fletching should not exceed 30.5 cm, and the weight should not exceed 50 grams.
2. The most common darts weigh 19-28 grams
3. What is the weight of a dart? The weight of the dart is the weight of the barrel with the needle, not the entire dart.
4. What is "knurling"? Knurling is the texture of the barel. There are cuts, notches, and grooves on it for easy grip with your fingers.
5. The plastic darts that come with Chinese targets are not darts, they are toys. They can be given to small children.
6. Shanks and empennage are consumables. If they are broken, throw them away and buy new ones.
7. With heavier darts, the target wears out faster
8. The dart does not fly on its own - it flies the way you threw it .

Primitive war. Armament

The weapons of the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age people are a mixture of weapons that were in use earlier (dart, wooden club, axe, knife, bow and arrows), and samples that have recently appeared thanks to the first successes of metallurgy. At the same time, copper and bronze, which replaced the previously used wood, bone and stone, in some cases made it possible to significantly increase the efficiency of using old weapons, as well as to create fundamentally new types of weapons.

Spear and Dart

The history of the spear dates back to ancient times. According to the observations of anthropologists, many species of monkeys used sharp sticks to destroy termite mounds and hunt small animals. However, monkeys do not use sticks (or other devices) to kill large prey or their own kind. This practice is a specifically human trait.

The use of the spear changed the behavioral practices of ancient hunters. A spear strike, especially one delivered from an ambush, allowed the hunter to immediately hit even a large animal. Using light spears - darts - for throwing, people were able to hunt the most careful and fast game and kill it from a great distance. In addition, a spear in his hands gave a person a significant advantage in a fight over those who did not have a spear in their hands. In order to successfully hunt or fight, he now needed a much smaller group than before.

The spear has a very long history of development and a truly universal distribution, which is facilitated by the elementary simplicity of its design and the availability of the materials necessary for its manufacture. The simplest spear of primitive man was a sharpened straight stick approximately the height of a man. The tip of the spear was burned in fire to give it greater hardness.

A Paleolithic hunter with the most ancient form of a spear, the wooden tip of which was burned in the flame of a fire. Archaeological Museum, Bonn

The oldest finds by archaeologists are a spear from Essex (Great Britain) and 8 wooden spears from Schöningen (Germany) ranging in age from 360,000 to 420,000 years. The oldest spears with obsidian tips were found in Gademott (Ethiopia), their age is 280,000 years. However, there are older finds. In 2012, 13 sharpened stone blades were found in the Cape Province (South Africa), which, from the point of view of archaeologists, are spearheads. They are at least 500,000 years old.

During the Middle Paleolithic era, about 200,000 years ago, spears began to be equipped with thinner tips made using the press-retouch technique. In the Upper Paleolithic, 35,000 years ago, arrowheads made from flint inserts and carved from bone appeared. During this period, there was a significant variety of arrowheads and techniques for mounting them on the shaft. Finally, during the Chalcolithic era, after 4000 BC, spearheads began to be made from copper and then bronze.

Compared to many other types of weapons, spears are monofunctional and are intended primarily for thrusting. This is due to the slight variability in the shapes of spear points, although the length and structure of the handle-shaft show significant diversity. Light and thin small tips, as a rule, were mounted on a wooden shaft 1.5–2 m long and were intended for throwing. Such spears decisively prevailed for a long time, since they allowed dual use. If necessary, they could not only be thrown into the distance, but also struck with them in hand-to-hand combat.

In the Bronze Age, highly specialized massive tips appeared, mounted on a long and heavy shaft. They were intended purely for inflicting a deep wound on a large animal or, in hand-to-hand combat, to defeat an enemy without armor. Such spears are not suitable for throwing. On the other hand, specialized very light throwing darts with a small tip and a short (up to 1.5 m) shaft are also becoming widespread.

Petroglyph depicting a man armed with a spear, Sweden

At the moment of impact, energy of several hundred kilograms is concentrated at the tip of the spear. Even a two-meter wooden spear made of birch or beech with a burnt tip can pierce through a leather-covered board 10 mm thick. The spear, equipped with a flint tip, easily penetrates a pork carcass to a depth of at least 20 cm, and in some cases pierces through it.

The combat properties of darts are usually underestimated by our contemporaries, but experiments show that in skillful hands they were also formidable weapons. A trained fighter can throw a dart at a distance of 70 m, and when it hits a target at a distance of up to 10 m, it will pierce an 18 mm thick oak board covered with leather. This distance does not seem particularly significant, but it should be taken into account that the distance to effectively hit the target is of greater importance compared to the maximum throw distance. The Zulus, for example, threw a dart at a target from a distance of no more than 25 m, since at a greater distance the impact force and accuracy of the hit deteriorated significantly. At the same time, a dart thrown at 25 m retained sufficient force to pierce a human body through an accurate hit.

Sometimes darts, like these harpoons, used by northern sea animal hunters, could have bizarre blade shapes and tip designs

Although identifying the type of weapon used to injure victims can sometimes be difficult, there are a number of notable examples of the use of spears during the European Bronze Age. In Dorchester-on-Thames (Great Britain), Winding (Denmark), and Hernadcak (Hungary), fragments of spear tips with which the wound was inflicted were found in the pelvic bones of the deceased. The tip broke during an attempt to remove it from the wound, which suggests greater impact force and penetrating power of the tip. Two young men from Tormarton (UK) were killed by a blow from behind. Dart tips were found embedded in the pelvic bone of one and in the cervical vertebra of the other.

Club

The baton is a weapon with impact and crushing action. Like the spear, it is one of the oldest types of weapons and has a universal distribution, which is favored by the simplicity of its design and the effectiveness of its use. The simplest club is a stick with a weighted end. Due to the length of the handle, which forms a lever in continuation of the human hand, the baton allows, with a good swing, to deliver a strong blow, which can break the strongest bones and fracture the victim’s skull. It can also be used as a throwing weapon when hunting small game.

The oldest finds of clubs processed by human hands date back to the Mesolithic era. A find was discovered in Kalambofalls (Zambia), whose age is approximately 200,000 years. It was probably used to finish off wounded animals.

Bronze Age wooden club in the shape of a baseball bat, from excavations at Tollensee (Germany)

Simple clubs, as well as clubs and staves, were carved from a single piece of hard wood. To make the warhead, the butt was used, where the wood has the greatest density and hardness. The use of combined materials, such as stone or sharp bone fragments inserted into the splits of a wooden trunk or pre-rotated into the tree, made it possible to significantly increase the hardness of the pommel and the severity of the blow.

The oldest finds also include round, polygonal and disc-shaped stone tops. They were attached to the handle using glue and straps made of bast and rawhide. Since it was difficult to firmly fix the stone pommel to the handle in this way, at least since the Neolithic era, the technique of drilling a through hole in it appeared. To ensure a strong grip, the pommel could be threaded into a still growing tree. Another technology involved soaking the handle with the pommel attached to it in water. The effectiveness of the weapon was also increased by protrusions or sharp edges of the pommel, first stone and then bronze. Thus, over time, a simple club turned first into a mace, and then into a war hammer.

Stone drilled heads of maces (left) and axes (right), 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological Museum, Schleswig

In 1996, a Bronze Age battlefield dating back to approximately 1250 BC was discovered on the banks of the small Tollensee River in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Among the remains of weapons found by archaeologists were two wooden clubs, one of which was shaped like a baseball bat, 73 cm long and carved from ash. The second resembled a croquet mallet with a handle 53 cm long; the material for it was thorn wood. The military context of these finds certainly suggests their use as weapons on the battlefield.

Axe

An axe, along with a knife and a spear, is the oldest type of working tool and weapon. The wooden handle began to be attached to the traditional ax in the Upper Paleolithic era. The material for the pommel was flint, obsidian or slate. In the Neolithic era, when making an ax, they began to use grinding with all their might, first for the working part of the blade, then for the entire surface of the tool.

Stone ax blade in a horn frame. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Brussels

The proportions and sizes of axes were very diverse. They could be wedge-shaped, scaphoid or lobed, and have a flat, round or one-sided convex profile in cross section. The handle could be tied to the ax in a fork with straps made of raw or rawhide; the ax could be inserted into the eye of the handle or pre-grown into a tree.

In the Neolithic era, massive axes with a hole for the handle appeared, the shape of which resembles the outlines of Bronze Age axes. Such axes could be used for various types of work, both for woodworking and as hoes or spades. The axes, carefully crafted from difficult-to-cut decorative stones, may have had a ceremonial function. In addition, all of them could be used as military weapons.

Stone axe. The flint blade is mounted in a wooden handle, behind which is an early example of a bronze axe. Gallo-Roman Museum, Tongeren

The ax is classified as a weapon with impact-crushing action. The heavy and rather short blade allows, upon impact, to concentrate enormous energy at the point of contact, which is greatly amplified by the large lever of the handle. The blow of the ax crushed bones and caused severe damage to soft tissues. The only negative quality of this weapon was its lower accuracy, since the ax, unlike a sword or spear, is not a direct extension of the warrior’s hand. As a rule, this disadvantage is easily compensated for by experience gained through long-term use. Due to the simplicity of its design, the ax was distinguished by its versatility of use and was included in the combat arsenal of warriors everywhere.

The early use of the ax as a weapon is evidenced by finds in mass graves of the archaeological culture of linear-band ceramics in Thalheim, Asparn-Schlötz and Schöneck-Kilianstedten. The skulls of the victims buried in them were broken mainly by these weapons.

Bronze pommels and reconstruction of their attachment to the handle. Archaeological Museum, Schleswig

Halberd

A special type of weapon is the Early Bronze Age halberd, known across wide areas of the European continent from the Iberian Peninsula to the Baltic coast. The tip, shaped like a dagger blade 0.2–0.25 m long, was mounted with rivets at right angles on a wooden handle approximately 1.5 m long. This design, reminiscent of the “war hammer” or “crow’s beak” of the late Middle Ages , made it possible, with a wide swing, to concentrate maximum force on a minimum contact area. Due to this feature, the halberd blade had high penetration ability.

The period of existence of this weapon dates back to between 2300 and 1500 BC. BC. But its appearance was undoubtedly preceded by an earlier tradition of making points from flint or obsidian, dating back to the 4th millennium BC. The somewhat exotic appearance of the Bronze Age halberd, the generally rounded shape of its tip and the richness of the external decoration of the surviving specimens gave rise to the point of view according to which such a halberd was a purely ceremonial object used in funeral rituals. However, repeatedly observed notches on the back of the tip, as well as damage to the system of attaching the blade to the handle, indicate in favor of the practical use of this weapon on the battlefield.

Reenactors offer several possible techniques for its use. In one of them, the target of the crushing force of blows from the tip of the halberd was the enemy’s skull. The blade could also be used to cut knee tendons or deliver a finishing blow to the throat. Practical experiments prove the effectiveness of this technique. Due to the scarcity of bone remains with identified damage caused by such a halberd, both hypotheses remain mere speculation.

Halberd or "crow's beak". Archaeological Museum, Schleswig

Dagger

The dagger has a straight blade up to 50 cm long, which gradually tapers to the tip. Such weapons are intended primarily for stabbing. This feature distinguishes a dagger from a knife, in which the cutting function is a priority. At the same time, a dagger with a long blade can also perform a cutting and even chopping function as an auxiliary one.

Flint daggers and knife. At the top is a set of flint inserts attached to the wooden base of the dagger. Archaeological Museum, Copenhagen

The predecessor of the dagger was a rough stone ax, which in the course of evolution turned into a flint or obsidian knife. The latter could be used both in hunting - for finishing off a wounded animal or for cutting up a carcass - and for fighting against its own kind, as shown by rock paintings of the 5th-4th millennium BC.

With the advent of bronze metallurgy, blades of knives and daggers began to be cast from bronze. At the last stage of processing, the blade was compacted with hammer blows, and then straightened and sharpened on a stone whetstone. The shape and dimensions of the blade were mainly determined by the mechanical properties of bronze. The blade could not be too long and too thin - otherwise, due to loss of strength from a strong blow, it could simply break in the hands of the owner.

Reconstruction of a dagger with flint inserts. Archaeological Museum, Schleswig

The blacksmiths had to compensate for the insufficient strength of the metal with a massive shape, so the blades coming out from under their hammers turned out to be short and quite wide. Specific historical models of this type of weapon show a significant variety of shapes and sizes.

Onion

One of the key inventions of mankind is the bow. With its help, the hunter was able to accurately hit the game from a long distance, while remaining in ambush. In combat conditions, the bow made it possible to shoot at the enemy from a safe distance, remaining outside the range of his destruction. The new ability greatly influenced the further course of human history. It is no coincidence that arrowheads found among bone remains are the most important indicator of the beginning of regular hostilities directed against their own kind.

Onions from Holmgard, Denmark. History Museum, Copenhagen

Perhaps the most ancient discovery of stone arrowheads was made in the Abri Sibudu Cave (South Africa). Its age is 64,000 years. In Europe, arrowhead finds date back to the Solutrean culture and date back to between 22,000 and 18,000 years ago. The oldest archaeological find of a bow comes from a gravel quarry in Mannheim-Vogelstang and is 14,680 years old. It is a fragment approximately 40 cm long. The total length of the bow was originally 110 cm. The material from which the bow was carved was pine wood, which is considered to be poorly suited for this purpose. However, from the reconstruction carried out by archaeologists, it was possible to send an arrow at a distance of 80 m.

Undoubted finds of bows dating back to the Mesolithic era come from Denmark. The two oldest come from Holmgard, Zealand, and date from between 6860–6540 and 6000 BC. respectively. Both are carved from elm and have a distinctive D-shaped cross profile, with the flat side, cut from the denser sapwood wood, exposed outwards and the convex side exposed inwards. The length of one find is 154 cm, the other 170 cm. Among the more numerous finds of the Neolithic period is a bow carved from yew from a bog in Somerset (UK), which dates back to about 2700 BC.

Flint arrowheads. State Historical Museum, Moscow

Arrowheads are one of the most common finds by archaeologists. Flint points continued to be used even as bronze casting technology spread. Finds of bronze tips are quite common in the Mediterranean and central parts of Europe. On the contrary, they are relatively rare in the western and northern parts of the continent. A typical picture of the mixture of different types of arrowheads is provided by the battlefield of Tollensee in northern Germany, dating back to approximately 1300–1200. BC. Along with the flint arrowheads characteristic of these places, there are also bronze arrowheads, the finds of which are rare.

Modern experiments show that the firing range of a yew bow on average exceeds 200 m, but the target range is somewhere in the range of 50–75 m. If it hits the victim’s body at this distance, an arrow with a flint tip can pierce through it. As the firing distance increases, both its effectiveness at hitting and the overall accuracy of hitting the target decreases.

A bronze arrowhead that pierced the skull bone and was embedded 2 cm deep. Tollensee, Germany

Sling

Another throwing weapon that had universal distribution is the sling. This simple weapon is a leather belt, one end of which is tied to the thumb, the other is pinched between the thumb and forefinger. After 2-3 swings above the head, the free end of the sling was released, and the projectile flew at high speed over a distance of up to 250 m.

Sling balls, which archaeologists often find during excavations of ancient settlements, are stone or clay. Later they began to be cast from lead. The usual size of a clay core does not exceed a chicken egg, its weight is 50 g. To prevent them from bursting during firing, they were dried in the sun. The cannonballs thrown by the sling flew with enormous force, breaking bones, causing severe concussions and wounds, which usually ended in blood poisoning and death. The effectiveness of these primitive weapons is partly evidenced by the fact that they are still sometimes used in hot spots to fire at the military and police.

Shield and armor

Defensive weapons provide no advantage in hunting, and their appearance is most likely the result of systematic military action. The oldest device used to repel attacks from enemy weapons is a shield. The earliest depictions of the shield are found in Neolithic rock art of the Iberian Peninsula, and the oldest archaeological finds date back to the Late Bronze Age. Devices intended for protection against projectile weapons were made from bark, vines and twigs or dried raw leather.

Depending on the tactics used, they could have different sizes and methods of carrying. Large life shields could not have handles, but were carried on a shoulder strap thrown over the warrior’s chest. Small, compact shields could be equipped with a wooden handle on the inside.

Bronze Age shields, Archaeological Museum, Copenhagen

The strength of light shields, woven from twigs or made of leather, was enough to repel arrows and darts. Even if a weapon pierced the shield, it got stuck in it without causing damage to the owner. Shields for hand-to-hand combat, capable of reflecting the blow of a spear or an ax, were made of more durable materials. Their base, as a rule, was wooden, covered with tanned leather. Occasionally, the outside of the shield could be covered with bronze, decorated with complex chased decorations and patterns. Completely bronze shields, such as those found at Yeetholm (Ireland) or South Cadbury (Great Britain), in their properties do not meet the requirements for defensive weapons, and must have been purely ritual objects.

Although helmets and protective armor came to Europe from the East and became widespread here only at the end of the Bronze Age, their analogues probably existed here before. They could be made from soft materials such as leather, felt or fabric quilted in several layers. Although no direct signs of their use were found, the possibility of wearing them follows from ethnographic parallels and materials from later times.

Literature

• Bray W., Trump D. Archaeological Dictionary. M.: Progress, 1990. – 367 p.
• Gorelik M.V. Weapons of the Ancient East (IV millennium BC – IV century BC). M.: Nauka, 1993. – 349 p.
• Malina Y., Malinova R. Leap into the past. The experiment reveals the secrets of ancient eras. M.: Mysl, 1988. – 272 p.
• Christensen J. Warfare in the European Neolithic. // Acta Archaeologica 2004, vol. 75 p. 129–156.
• Thorpe IJN Anthropology, Archaeology, and the Origin of Warfare. // World Archeology 2003, vol. 35, p. 145–165.