The path of motion of a body (for example, a bomb, a rocket, an aircraft), in which there is no thrust or control force and moment, is called a ballistic trajectory. If the mechanism that powers the object remains operational throughout the entire period of movement, it belongs to the category of aviation or dynamic. The trajectory of an aircraft during flight with the engines turned off at high altitude can also be called ballistic.
An object that moves along given coordinates is affected only by the mechanism that drives the body, the forces of resistance and gravity. A set of such factors excludes the possibility of linear movement. This rule works even in space.
The body describes a trajectory that is similar to an ellipse, hyperbola, parabola or circle. The last two options are achieved at the second and first cosmic velocities. Calculations for parabolic or circular motion are performed to determine the trajectory of a ballistic missile.
Taking into account all the parameters during launch and flight (weight, speed, temperature, etc.), the following trajectory features are distinguished:
- In order to launch the rocket as far as possible, you need to choose the right angle. The best is sharp, about 45º.
- The object has the same initial and final speed.
- The body lands at the same angle as it launches.
- The time it takes for an object to move from the start to the middle, as well as from the middle to the finishing point, is the same.
Trajectory properties and practical implications
The movement of a body after the influence of the driving force on it ceases is studied by external ballistics. This science provides calculations, tables, scales, sights and develops optimal options for shooting. The ballistic trajectory of a bullet is a curved line described by the center of gravity of an object in flight.
Since the body is affected by gravity and resistance, the path that the bullet (projectile) describes forms the shape of a curved line. Under the influence of these forces, the speed and height of the object gradually decreases. There are several trajectories: flat, mounted and conjugate.
The first is achieved by using an elevation angle that is less than the angle of greatest range. If the flight range remains the same for different trajectories, such a trajectory can be called conjugate. In the case where the elevation angle is greater than the angle of greatest range, the path becomes called a suspended path.
The trajectory of the ballistic movement of an object (bullet, projectile) consists of points and sections:
- Departure (for example, the muzzle of a barrel) - this point is the beginning of the path, and, accordingly, the countdown.
- Weapon horizon - this section passes through the departure point. The trajectory crosses it twice: during release and during fall.
- The elevation section is a line that is a continuation of the horizon and forms a vertical plane. This area is called the firing plane.
- The apex of the trajectory is the point that is midway between the starting and ending points (shot and fall), and has the highest angle along the entire path.
- Aims - the target or sighting location and the beginning of the object's movement form the aiming line. An aiming angle is formed between the horizon of the weapon and the final target.
Trident II
The UGM-133A missile was developed for about 13 years by Lockheed Martin Corporation and was adopted by the US Armed Forces in 1990, and a little later by the UK. Its advantages include high speed and accuracy, which makes it possible to destroy even silo-based ICBM launchers, as well as bunkers located deep underground. American Ohio-class submarine cruisers and British Vanguard SSBNs are equipped with “Tridents”.
Launch of UGM-133A from the Ohio submarine
Performance characteristics of the Trident II ICBM:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 13.42x2.11 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 59,078 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 3 | |
| Fuel type | hard | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 6000 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 11300 | 7800 with maximum number of warheads |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 90–500 | minimal with GPS guidance |
| Weight of warhead, t | 2,800 | |
| Charge type | thermonuclear, 475 and 100 Kt | |
| Combat units | from 8 to 14 | multiple warhead |
| Type of basing | underwater |
Tridents hold the record for the most successful launches in a row. Therefore, the reliable missile is expected to be used until 2042. Currently, the US Navy has at least 14 Ohio SSBNs, capable of carrying 24 UGM-133A each.
Rockets: features of launch and movement
There are guided and unguided ballistic missiles. The formation of the trajectory is also influenced by external and external factors (resistance forces, friction, weight, temperature, required flight range, etc.).
The general path of a launched body can be described by the following stages:
- Launch. In this case, the rocket enters the first stage and begins its movement. From this moment, the measurement of the height of the ballistic missile’s flight path begins.
- After about a minute, the second engine starts.
- 60 seconds after the second stage, the third engine starts.
- Then the body enters the atmosphere.
- Lastly, the warheads explode.
Pershing II ("Pershing-2")
The last US medium-range ballistic missile, the MGM-31, which entered service with the Armed Forces in 1983, became a worthy opponent to the Russian RSD-10, which the Warsaw Pact countries began deploying in Europe. For its time, the American ballistic missile had excellent characteristics, including high accuracy provided by the RADAG guidance system.
Deployment of the Pershing 2 launcher division
TTX BR Pershing II:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 10.6x1.02 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 7,49 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 2 | |
| Fuel type | hard | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 2400 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 1770 | |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 30 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | 1,8 | |
| Charge type | high explosive, nuclear, from 5 to 80 Kt | |
| Combat units | 1 | inseparable |
| Type of basing | ground | self-propelled launcher |
A total of 384 MGM-31 missiles were produced, which were in service with the US Army until July 1989, when the Russian-American treaty on the reduction of intermediate-range rocket forces came into force. After this, most of the carriers were disposed of, and the nuclear warheads were used to equip aerial bombs.
Launching a rocket and forming a movement curve
The rocket's travel curve consists of three parts: the launch period, free flight and re-entry into the earth's atmosphere.
Combat projectiles are launched from a fixed point on portable installations, as well as vehicles (ships, submarines). The flight initiation lasts from tenths of a thousandths of a second to several minutes. Free fall constitutes the largest portion of a ballistic missile's flight path.
The advantages of running such a device are:
- Long free flight time. Thanks to this property, fuel consumption is significantly reduced in comparison with other rockets. To fly prototypes (cruise missiles), more economical engines (for example, jets) are used.
- At the speed at which the intercontinental weapon moves (approximately 5 thousand m/s), interception is very difficult.
- The ballistic missile is capable of hitting a target at a distance of up to 10 thousand km.
In theory, the path of movement of a projectile is a phenomenon from the general theory of physics, the section of the dynamics of solid bodies in motion. With respect to these objects, the movement of the center of mass and the movement around it are considered. The first relates to the characteristics of the object in flight, the second to stability and control.
Since the body has programmed trajectories for flight, the calculation of the ballistic trajectory of the missile is determined by physical and dynamic calculations.
Political prerequisites for the creation of missile weapons
On August 20, 1945, a special committee was created under the State Defense Committee to solve the atomic problem for military purposes.
By resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of April 9, 1946, a highly secret organization KB-11 was created for the development of nuclear weapons, the scientific director of which was appointed Yu. B. Khariton. In 1947–1949 The Semipalatinsk nuclear weapons testing site is being created. Work on creating new, most modern weapons in the country was given top priority. On August 29, 1949, the first nuclear charge with a capacity of 22 kt of trinitrotoluene exploded at the Semipalatinsk test site. The United States of America was deprived of its main advantage - the monopoly on atomic weapons, and this happened much earlier than the United States expected. But this solved only part of the problem. An equally difficult task lay ahead - ensuring guaranteed delivery of a nuclear charge to the targets of a potential enemy, including those located on another continent. The traditional means of delivery - aviation in the geographical location of the Soviet Union, which does not have military air bases near the American continent, was ineffective. Bombers as a means of delivering nuclear weapons had a number of significant unavoidable shortcomings, the main ones being the long flight time to the target and the possibility of interception by air defense systems. Therefore, the USSR relied on the creation of long-range ballistic missiles.
The prerequisite for this decision was the combat use of V-2 (A-4) ballistic missiles by Germany at the end of World War II. The creation of this rocket was, of course, an outstanding scientific and technical achievement. The development of the world's first long-range ballistic missile (at that time) is associated with the name of Wernher von Braun. Now this name is known throughout the world.
After the war, the USA and the USSR took measures to collect all the information about the V-2 rocket, which made it possible to study and use German experience in the creation of ballistic missiles. The main German rocket factories and testing grounds found themselves in the US occupation zone, and the chief designer of the V-2 rocket, von Braun, surrendered to units of the 7th American Army on May 2, 1945, together with a group of the main rocket developers. Leading German development specialists, about a hundred assembled V-2 rockets, and technical documentation for the rocket were sent overseas to the United States.
In the Soviet Union, a special purpose brigade (BON) was created under the command of Major General Alexander Fedorovich Tveretsky to study German rocket technology. As a result of the work of this brigade, the main technical and technological documentation for the rocket was restored, 19 copies of the rockets were assembled, and ground equipment was reproduced. Thus, work on long-range missiles in the USSR and the USA began at the same time and from the same level - the development of the German V-2 rocket. The difference was in the attitude towards them. For the Americans, who had a network of military bases along the entire perimeter of the Soviet Union, an effective and numerous bomber force, the world's largest ocean fleet, including submarines, ballistic missiles at that time seemed to be an ineffective weapon, and their development was not given due attention. For the Soviet Union, missile weapons - due to geographical, economic, political and other factors - were the only alternative, and in the face of the mortal threat posed by yesterday's ally, no means had to be spared.
Mikhail Kuzmich Yangel (1911–1971)
On May 13, 1946, the fundamental Resolution No. 1017-419 of the USSR Council of Ministers on the development of missile weapons in the country was adopted.
This document emphasized: “...work on the development of jet technology should be considered the most important state task...”. For the planned economy of the Soviet Union, this meant that the best minds and a significant part of the country's national economy were working on creating perfect rockets. Under the leadership of S.P. Korolev, a domestic copy of the V-2 rocket called R-1 is being created. In 1950, the R-1 missile was put into service, and the question arose about its mass production. What was needed was a plant capable of large-scale production of missiles. A commission headed by D.F. Ustinov examined a number of factories and chose the “young” automobile plant in Dnepropetrovsk. On May 10, 1951, by a resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Dnepropetrovsk Automobile Plant was transferred to the Ministry of Armaments of the USSR. It became a secret rocket enterprise - “mailbox No. 186”, or State Union Plant No. 586.
Modern developments in ballistics
Since military missiles of any kind are dangerous to life, the main task of defense is to improve the launch points of the striking systems. The latter must ensure the complete neutralization of intercontinental and ballistic weapons at any point of movement. A multi-tier system is proposed for consideration:
- This invention consists of separate tiers, each of which has its own purpose: the first two will be equipped with laser-type weapons (homing missiles, electromagnetic guns).
- The next two sections are equipped with the same weapons, but designed to destroy the head parts of enemy weapons.
Developments in defense missile technology do not stand still. Scientists are modernizing a quasi-ballistic missile. The latter is presented as an object that has a low path in the atmosphere, but at the same time sharply changes direction and range.
The ballistic trajectory of such a missile does not affect its speed: even at an extremely low altitude, the object moves faster than a normal one. For example, the Russian-developed Iskander flies at supersonic speeds - from 2100 to 2600 m/s with a mass of 4 kg 615 g; missile cruises move a warhead weighing up to 800 kg. During flight, it maneuvers and evades missile defenses.
Scud B (P-17)
The R-17 missile, developed by SKB-385 and adopted by the USSR Armed Forces in 1962, is still considered the standard for assessing the effectiveness of anti-missile systems developed in the West. It is an integral part of the 9K72 Elbrus complex or Scud B according to NATO terminology.
It showed excellent performance in real combat conditions during the Yom Kippur War, the Iran-Iraq conflict, and was used in the Second Chechen Company and against the Mujahideen in Afghanistan.
Operational-tactical complex Scud B with R-17 missile
Performance characteristics of the R-17 product:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 11.16x0.88 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 5,86 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 1 | |
| Fuel type | liquid | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 1500 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 300 | with nuclear warhead 180 |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 450 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | 0,985 | |
| Charge type | nuclear 10 Kt, high explosive, chemical | |
| Combat units | 1 | not detachable |
| Launch vehicle | mobile | eight-wheel tractor MAZ-543-P |
Various modifications of Russian and USSR cruise missiles - R-17 - were produced in Votkinsk and Petropavlovsk from 1961 to 1987 . As the design service life of 22 years expired, the SCAD complexes were removed from service with the RF Armed Forces.
At the same time, almost 200 launchers are still used by the armies of the UAE, Syria, Belarus, North Korea, Egypt and 6 other countries.
Intercontinental weapons: control theory and components
Multistage ballistic missiles are called intercontinental missiles. This name appeared for a reason: due to the long flight range, it becomes possible to transfer cargo to the other end of the Earth. The main combat substance (charge) is mainly an atomic or thermonuclear substance. The latter is located in the front of the projectile.
Next, a control system, engines and fuel tanks are installed in the design. Dimensions and weight depend on the required flight range: the greater the distance, the higher the launch weight and dimensions of the structure.
The ballistic flight trajectory of an ICBM is distinguished from the trajectory of other missiles by altitude. The multi-stage rocket goes through the launch process, then moves upward at a right angle for several seconds. The control system ensures that the gun is directed towards the target. The first stage of the rocket drive separates independently after complete burnout, and at the same moment the next one is launched. Upon reaching a given speed and flight altitude, the rocket begins to rapidly move down towards the target. The flight speed to the destination reaches 25 thousand km/h.
Ballistic, cruise and anti-aircraft missiles on display at the Military Museum of the Chinese Revolution
Military Museum of the Chinese Revolution
. In this part of the tour of the Military Museum of the Chinese Revolution, we will get acquainted with the ballistic, cruise and anti-aircraft missiles available here. Among the aircraft with jet and piston engines on display on the first floor of the museum are ballistic and cruise missiles. Ballistic missiles DF-1 and DF-2 rise above the aviation equipment presented on the ground floor, almost touching the ceiling.
The Soviet R-2 ballistic missile had much in common with the R-1 missile, which in turn was created on the basis of the German V-2 (A-4). To increase the range, the R-2 used a warhead that could be separated from the missile body. In addition, to reduce weight, a fuel tank made of light aluminum alloys was used. The new RD-101 engine was lighter and had increased thrust. To improve the accuracy of the hit, the control equipment was supplemented with a lateral radio correction system, which reduces the parallel drift of the missile. In its standard version, the R-2 had a high-explosive warhead weighing 1,500 kg, loaded with 1,000 kg of TNT. The length of the rocket is 17.7 m, the maximum diameter is 1.65 m. The rocket with a launch weight of 20.4 tons had a firing range of up to 600 km.
DF-1 ballistic missile, view from the second floor of the museum
In December 1957, as part of military-technical cooperation, a production license, a complete set of documentation and several missiles were transferred to the PRC. The Chinese version was named DF-1 (“Dongfeng-1”, East Wind-1). The first missile brigade with Soviet R-2s was formed in 1957, and the first missile division, loudly called strategic, appeared in 1960. At the same time, the formation of the “Second Artillery Corps” of the PLA, an analogue of the Russian Strategic Missile Forces, began in China.
By 1961, the PLA already had several regiments equipped with DF-1 missiles, which were aimed at Taiwan and South Korea. However, the technical reliability coefficient of the DF-1 was low and did not exceed 0.5. In other words, only 50% of the missiles had a chance of hitting the target. Given the low shooting accuracy and high-explosive warhead, the DF-1 was relatively effective against large cities. The first “Chinese” short-range ballistic missile remained essentially experimental, but at the same time the Chinese were able to accumulate the necessary knowledge and train personnel. Operation of the DF-1 in China continued until the end of the 1960s.
The first Chinese ballistic missile produced in significant quantities and equipped with a nuclear warhead (NCU) was the DF-2. It is believed that when creating it, Chinese designers used technical solutions used in the Soviet R-5. The rocket is single-stage with a four-chamber liquid propellant rocket engine. Kerosene and nitric acid were used as rocket fuel components. The DF-2 had a firing accuracy (CAO) within 3 km with a maximum flight range of 2000 km; this missile could already hit targets in Japan and in a significant part of the USSR.
DF-2 ballistic missile, view from the second floor of the museum
The DF-2 missile was launched from a ground launch pad, where it was installed during pre-launch preparation.
Before this, it was stored in an underground or durable reinforced concrete shelter and was transported to the starting position only after receiving the appropriate order. In order to launch a rocket from a technical state corresponding to constant readiness, it took more than 3.5 hours. There were about 70 missiles of this type on combat duty. On October 27, 1966, the DF-2 ballistic missile was tested with a real nuclear charge; after flying 894 km, it hit a conditional target at the Lop Nor test site. The DF-2 was initially equipped with a monoblock nuclear warhead with a power of 20 kt, which, taking into account the high CEP, was very modest for a strategic missile. In the mid-1970s, it was possible to increase the charge power to 700 kt. DF-2 missiles were available in missile brigades stationed in the west, north and northeast of China until the mid-1980s. After being removed from service, the DF-2 was used in various experiments, and to test radars for early warning systems for missile attacks.
In 1960, the USSR adopted the P-15 anti-ship cruise missile. It had a propulsion liquid two-component jet engine, which used TG-02 (Tonka-250) fuel that self-ignites upon contact with an oxidizer and an AK-20K oxidizer (based on nitrogen oxides). The engine operated in two modes: acceleration and propulsion. During the sustaining phase of the flight, the rocket flew at a speed of 320 m/s. The firing range of the first modifications of the P-15 anti-ship missiles reached forty kilometers. The P-15 rocket was equipped with an autonomous guidance system, with a radar or thermal seeker, an autopilot, a radio or a barometric altimeter, which made it possible to maintain the flight altitude within 100-200 meters above the surface. A high-explosive cumulative warhead weighing 480 kilograms ensured the destruction of warships with a displacement of more than 3000 tons.
In addition to Project 183R missile boats and several hundred missiles, technical documentation for the P-15M anti-ship missiles was transferred to China, which made it possible to establish their mass production at the aircraft plant No. 320 in Nanchang in the early 1970s. In China, cruise missiles received the designation SY-1; in addition to missile boats, they were used to arm frigates of Project 053 (Jianghu type), created on the basis of the Soviet TFR Project 50, and coastal missile units. The first modification of the Chinese anti-ship missile with a liquid jet engine was put into service in 1974.
RCC SY-1
At first, the operation of the SY-1 was very difficult; the Chinese clearly lacked experience, knowledge and production culture, and the quality of the missiles was very low. There were frequent cases of leakage of fuel and oxidizer, which spontaneously ignited upon contact, leading to explosions and fires.
Taking into account the complexity of operation and the danger of using rockets with liquid-propellant engines running on caustic oxidizer and toxic fuel, the PRC developed the SY-2 anti-ship missile with a solid fuel engine. But at the same time, the firing range was less than that of a rocket with a rocket engine.
Further development of Chinese anti-ship missiles was aimed at increasing the speed and flight range, noise immunity of the seeker and warhead power, which led to the creation of the HY-1 series missiles.
HY-1 anti-ship missiles on a towed launcher
Chinese destroyers Project 051 and coastal divisions were armed with HY-1 missiles. Improved versions with a new active radar seeker were designated HY-1J and HY-1JA. Missiles of this type carried a cumulative warhead weighing more than 500 kg. The rocket was launched from a carrier ship or a ground launcher using a solid fuel accelerator.
HY-2 anti-ship missiles
Modernization of the HY-1 guidance system and an increase in geometric dimensions led to the creation of the HY-2 (C201) anti-ship missile system. Thanks to larger tanks, the flight range increased to 100 km. But at the same time, the increased capacity of the tanks increased the dimensions of the missiles, making it impossible to place them on ship launchers. For this reason, HY-2 anti-ship missiles were used only on coastal missile systems.
HY-2A anti-ship missiles with solid fuel accelerator
The HY-2 anti-ship missiles created in the 1980s used ampulized tanks with fuel and oxidizer. Thanks to this, fueled missiles could remain at the launch position for a long time. It also made their maintenance easier and reduced the risk for settlements. To launch the HY-2 family of anti-ship missiles, solid fuel boosters of increased power were used.
The HY-2A modification missile was equipped with an infrared seeker, while the HY-2B and HY-2G were equipped with a monopulse radar seeker, and the HY-2C was equipped with a television guidance system. The probability of hitting a target if it is captured by a radar seeker in the absence of organized interference was estimated at 0.7-0.8.
RCC HY-2G
The use of an advanced radio altimeter and a programmable controller on the HY-2G modification allowed the rocket to use a variable flight profile.
Chinese experts have squeezed everything they can out of the basic design of the Soviet P-15 anti-ship missile, creating a line of sea-, air- and land-based cruise missiles. Thanks to the introduction of various improvements and an increase in the capacity of fuel and oxidizer tanks, it was possible to significantly increase the firing range. The introduction of various types of target guidance systems not only improved noise immunity, but also diversified application options for various purposes. In particular, thanks to the use of passive radar seekers, it became possible to destroy operating ground-based and ship-based radars.
After implementing a program to improve reliability and safety, the YJ-6 modification was created on the basis of the HY-2 anti-ship missile in 1977, which was carried by the H-6 long-range bombers. Compared to the HY-2, the YJ-6 missile has a slightly smaller length and launch weight.
Anti-ship missiles YJ-6
This version of the anti-ship missile, adopted for service in 1984, could hit targets at a range of up to 100 km; the probability of hitting a target in the absence of interference was estimated by Chinese experts as 0.7.
PKR S601
In the mid-1980s, the C611 (YJ-61) aviation anti-ship missile system, created on the basis of the later HY-2 models, entered service. The air-launched missile had a smaller mass and did not have launch boosters. Compared to early models of Chinese liquid-propelled anti-ship missiles, which were carried by long-range N-6 bombers, the S611 missile has become easier to use and safer. The launch range has increased to 200 km, and the probability of hitting a target has been increased through the use of noise-resistant seekers. The C611Y modification is equipped with a new guidance system built on a solid-state element base. After being dropped from an airplane, the missile flies according to a pre-prepared program, only in the final section using an active radar seeker to search for a target.
RCC S611Y
A missile carrying a warhead weighing 300 kg during the cruising phase has a speed of about 320 m/s; at the final stage of flight it can exceed a speed of 400 m/s. Minimum flight altitude is 50 meters. Liquid-propelled air-launched anti-ship missiles of the C611 family are still part of the armament of N-6 naval aircraft, but are gradually being replaced by safer models with solid fuel, turbojet and ramjet engines.
In addition to serial products, the museum exhibit includes a model of the experimental supersonic anti-ship missile HY-3. The HY-3 missile used a warhead and seeker from the HY-2G anti-ship missile. The launch took place with the help of four solid fuel boosters.
RCC model HY-3
Two sustainer ramjet engines running on kerosene were launched after reaching a speed of 1.8 Mach and accelerated the rocket to a speed of more than 2.5 Mach. The firing range was 150 km. Due to excessive complexity and low technical reliability, the production of HY-3 anti-ship missiles was limited to a pilot batch.
On the lower floor, among armored vehicles and various artillery systems, launchers with anti-aircraft missiles of the HQ-2 anti-aircraft complex, which is a Chinese version of the Soviet S-75 air defense system, are displayed.
HQ-2 air defense missile on a launcher on display at the Military Museum of the Chinese Revolution
In the 1950s, Kuomintang Taiwan and Communist China were effectively at war. Over the Strait of Formosa and the adjacent territory of the South China Sea, real air battles regularly took place between jet fighters of the Air Force of the People's Republic of China and the Air Force of the Republic of China, led by Marshal Chiang Kai-shek. After both sides suffered significant losses in the air, large-scale battles between Chinese and Taiwanese fighters stopped, but the Americans and the Taiwanese leadership closely monitored the strengthening of the military power of mainland China and regular flights of high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft RB-57D and U-2C began over the territory of the PRC. , in the cockpits of which Taiwanese pilots sat. The high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft were provided to the island Republic of China as part of free American aid. If the Kuomintang tried to reveal the PLA’s preparations for an invasion of Taiwan, the American intelligence services were primarily interested in the progress of the implementation of the nuclear program in the PRC, the construction of new aircraft factories and missile ranges.
Initially, high-altitude strategic reconnaissance aircraft Martin RB - 57D Canberra were used for flights over the Chinese mainland. This aircraft was created by Martin based on the British Electric Canberra bomber. The single-seat reconnaissance aircraft had a flight altitude of more than 20,000 m and could photograph ground objects within a radius of up to 3,700 km from its airfield.
From January to April 1959, high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft made ten long raids deep into Chinese territory, and in the summer of that year, RB-57Ds flew over Beijing twice. The top Chinese leadership was very sensitive to the fact that foreign aircraft could fly over the country's territory with impunity, and Mao Zedong, despite his personal hostility towards Khrushev, asked for the supply of weapons capable of preventing the flights of Taiwanese reconnaissance aircraft. Although by that time relations between the USSR and the PRC were far from ideal, Mao Zedong’s request was granted, and in an atmosphere of deep secrecy, five firing and one technical division of the SA-75 Dvina, including 62 11D anti-aircraft missiles, were delivered to China.
The SA-75 "Dvina" air defense system used the V-750 (1D) missile defense system with an engine running on kerosene; nitrogen tetroxide was used as an oxidizer. The rocket was launched from an inclined launcher with a variable launch angle and an electric drive for turning in angle and azimuth using a detachable solid fuel first stage. The guidance station was capable of simultaneously tracking one target and directing up to three missiles at it. In total, the anti-aircraft missile division had 6 launchers, which were located at a distance of up to 75 meters from the SNR-75.
In the PRC, the positions of the SA-75 air defense system were placed around important political and economic centers: Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Xi'an and Shenyang. To service these anti-aircraft systems, a group of Soviet specialists was sent to China, who were also involved in preparing Chinese crews. In the fall of 1959, the first divisions served by Chinese crews began combat duty, and on October 7, 1959, the first Taiwanese RB-57D was shot down near Beijing at an altitude of 20,600 m. As a result of a close rupture of a powerful fragmentation warhead, weighing 190 kg, the plane fell apart and its debris was scattered over a large area. The pilot of the reconnaissance plane was killed. According to the radio interception station, which monitored the conversations of the deceased RB-57D pilot, he was unaware of the danger until the last moment, and the tape recording of the pilot’s negotiations with Taiwan was cut off mid-sentence. The PLA command did not disclose information that the spy plane was shot down, and Taiwanese media reported that the RB-57D crashed and sank in the East China Sea during a training flight.
HQ-2 air defense missile on a launcher on display at the Military Museum of the Chinese Revolution
American experts ruled out the possibility that the PRC had acquired weapons capable of shooting down air targets flying at an altitude of more than 20 km, and in the early 1960s, six Lockheed U-2C high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft appeared in the Taiwanese Air Force. The U-2C aircraft could conduct reconnaissance from an altitude of more than 21,000 m. The flight duration was 6.5 hours, the speed along the route was about 600 km/h.
The cockpit of a U-2C plane shot down over Chinese territory
However, flights over mainland China were associated with great risk. Between November 1, 1963 and May 16, 1969, at least 4 aircraft were shot down by anti-aircraft missile systems. At the same time, two pilots successfully ejected and were captured. Two more U-2Cs were lost in flight accidents, after which raids by high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft from Taiwan ceased.
Wreckage of a U-2С aircraft
Currently, the wreckage of one of the U-2C high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft is on display at the Military Museum of the Chinese Revolution. There are also launchers of the HQ-2 complex with anti-aircraft missiles. Although later models outwardly have much in common with the first Chinese air defense system HQ-1, unfortunately there is no such missile in the exhibition hall.
The tail section of a U-2C reconnaissance aircraft shot down over Chinese territory
However, this did not mean that violations of China’s air borders stopped. In addition to the invasion of airspace by Taiwan, several American combat aircraft were shot down over Chinese territory during the Vietnam War. If the Phantom pilots violated the border mostly by accident, the AQM-34 Firebee unmanned reconnaissance aircraft delved deeper into Chinese territory deliberately.
Wreckage of an American reconnaissance UAV AQM-34 Firebee, shot down in 1964
In 1966, based on a package of documentation received from the USSR, the PRC created its own analogue of the Dvina - the HQ-1 air defense system. However, this complex in its capabilities no longer fully met the requirements of the military. Since military-technical cooperation with the Soviet Union was practically curtailed in the 1960s, China lost the opportunity to legally get acquainted with Soviet innovations in the field of air defense. But the Chinese “comrades,” with their characteristic pragmatism, took advantage of the fact that Soviet military aid was coming through the territory of the PRC by rail to North Vietnam. Soviet representatives have repeatedly recorded evidence of the loss of radars, elements of anti-aircraft missile systems and anti-aircraft missiles during transportation through Chinese territory.
After Chinese specialists gained access to more advanced Soviet S-75 Desna and S-75M Volga air defense systems and B-755 missiles delivered to Egypt, China created the HQ-2 air defense system with a guidance station operating at 6 -cm frequency range. The new complex had an increased firing range and improved noise immunity. Currently, the PRC continues to operate the HQ-2J air defense systems built in the second half of the 1980s. But as new complexes with solid fuel missiles arrive, the Chinese analogue of the S-75 is withdrawn from service.
To be continued…
World developments of special-purpose missiles
About 20 years ago, during the modernization of one of the medium-range missile systems, a project for anti-ship ballistic missiles was adopted. This design is placed on an autonomous launch platform. The weight of the projectile is 15 tons, and the launch range is almost 1.5 km.
The trajectory of a ballistic missile for destroying ships is not amenable to quick calculations, so it is impossible to predict enemy actions and eliminate this weapon.
This development has the following advantages:
- Launch range. This value is 2-3 times greater than that of the prototypes.
- Flight speed and altitude make military weapons invulnerable to missile defense.
World experts are confident that weapons of mass destruction can still be detected and neutralized. For such purposes, special out-of-orbit reconnaissance stations, aviation, submarines, ships, etc. are used. The most important “countermeasure” is space reconnaissance, which is presented in the form of radar stations.
The ballistic trajectory is determined by the reconnaissance system. The received data is transmitted to its destination. The main problem is the rapid obsolescence of information - in a short period of time the data loses its relevance and can diverge from the actual location of the weapon at a distance of up to 50 km.
V-2 (V-2)
The first truly long-range ballistic missile was the German V-2, developed by a design bureau headed by Wernher Von Braun. It was tested back in 1942, and from the beginning of September 1944, London and its environs were attacked daily by dozens of V-2s.
Mobile V-2 missile launcher
Performance characteristics of the FAU-2 product:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 14x1.65 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 12,5 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 1 | |
| Fuel type | liquid | mixture of liquefied oxygen and ethyl alcohol |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 1450 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 320 | |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 5000 | design value within 0.5–1 |
| Weight of warhead, t | 1,0 | |
| Charge type | high explosive, equivalent to ammotol 800 kg | |
| Combat units | 1 | inseparable |
| Type of basing | ground | stationary or mobile launch pad |
During one of the V-2 launches, it was possible to rise 188 km above the earth and make the world's first suborbital flight. The product was produced on an industrial scale in 1944–1945. In total, about 3.5 thousand V-2s were produced during this time.
Characteristics of combat systems of the domestic defense industry
The most powerful weapon of the present time is considered to be an intercontinental ballistic missile, which is stationary. The domestic missile system "R-36M2" is one of the best. It houses the heavy-duty 15A18M combat weapon, which is capable of carrying up to 36 individual precision-guided nuclear projectiles.
The ballistic flight path of such a weapon is almost impossible to predict; accordingly, neutralizing a missile also poses difficulties. The combat power of the projectile is 20 Mt. If this ammunition explodes at a low altitude, the communication, control, and missile defense systems will fail.
Modifications of the above missile launcher can also be used for peaceful purposes.
Among solid fuel missiles, the RT-23 UTTH is considered especially powerful. Such a device is based autonomously (mobile). In the stationary prototype station (“15Zh60”), the starting thrust is 0.3 higher compared to the mobile version.
Missile launches carried out directly from stations are difficult to neutralize, because the number of projectiles can reach 92 units.
Minuteman III (LGM-30G)
For many years, the Boeing Company product has been the only silo-based ICBM in the United States. However, even today the American Minuteman III ballistic missiles, which entered combat duty back in 1970, remain a formidable weapon. Thanks to the modernization, the LGM-30G received more maneuverable Mk21 warheads and an improved propulsion engine.
LGM-30G in the launch silo
Performance characteristics of the Minuteman III ICBM:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 18.3x1.67 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 34,5 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 3 | |
| Fuel type | hard | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 6700 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 13000 | |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 210 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | 1,15 | |
| Charge type | thermonuclear, from 0.3 to 0.6 Mt | |
| Combat units | 3 | shared |
| Type of basing | ground | in the mines |
Today, the list of American ballistic missiles is limited to Minutements-3. The US Armed Forces have up to 450 units stationed in mine complexes in the states of North Dakota, Wyoming and Montana. It is planned to replace reliable but obsolete missiles no earlier than the beginning of the next decade.
Missile systems and installations of the foreign defense industry
The height of the ballistic trajectory of the American Minuteman-3 missile is not very different from the flight characteristics of domestic inventions.
The complex, which was developed in the USA, is the only “defender” of North America among weapons of this type to this day. Despite the age of the invention, the gun’s stability indicators are quite good even today, because the complex’s missiles could withstand missile defense and also hit a target with a high level of protection. The active part of the flight is short and lasts 160 seconds.
Another American invention is the Peakkeeper. It could also ensure an accurate hit on the target thanks to the most favorable trajectory of ballistic movement. Experts say that the combat capabilities of the above complex are almost 8 times higher than those of the Minuteman. The Peacekeeper's combat duty was 30 seconds.
"Topol M"
Tests of the missile system, which became the second in the Topol family, were completed in 1994, and three years later, it was put into service with the Strategic Missile Forces. However, he failed to become one of the main components of the Russian nuclear triad. In 2022, the Russian Defense Ministry stopped purchasing the product, opting for the RS-24 Yars.
Modern Russian launch vehicle "Topol-M" at a parade in Moscow
Technical characteristics of the RK of strategic purpose "Topol-M":
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 22.55x17.5 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 47,2 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 3 | |
| Fuel type | hard | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 7320 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 12000 | |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 150–200 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | 1,2 | |
| Charge type | thermonuclear, 1 Mt | |
| Combat units | 1 | inseparable |
| Type of basing | ground | in mines or on a tractor with a 16x16 base |
TOP is a Russian-made rocket. It is distinguished by its high ability to withstand Western air defense systems, excellent maneuverability, low sensitivity to electromagnetic pulses, radiation, and the effects of laser systems. At the moment, there are 18 mobile and 60 Topol-M mine complexes on combat duty.
See also the article Topol ballistic missile and its technical characteristics
Projectile flight and movement in the atmosphere
From the dynamics section we know the influence of air density on the speed of movement of any body in various layers of the atmosphere. The function of the last parameter takes into account the dependence of density directly on flight altitude and is expressed as a function of:
N(y)=20000-y/20000+y;
where y is the height of the projectile flight (m).
The parameters and trajectory of an intercontinental ballistic missile can be calculated using special computer programs. The latter will provide statements, as well as data on flight altitude, speed and acceleration, and the duration of each stage.
The experimental part confirms the calculated characteristics and proves that the speed is influenced by the shape of the projectile (the better the streamlining, the higher the speed).
"Iskander"
The Iskander operational-tactical systems, which replaced the Topol, Tochka and Elbrus (the well-known names of Russian missiles), are the best new generation missiles in the world. Super-maneuverable cruise missiles of tactical systems are practically invulnerable to the air defense systems of any potential enemy.
At the same time, the OTRK is extremely mobile and can be deployed in a matter of minutes. Its firepower, even when firing conventional charges, is comparable in effectiveness to an attack with nuclear weapons.
Complex "Iskander"
TTX OTRK "Iskander":
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 7.2x0.92 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 3,8 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 1 | |
| Fuel type | hard | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 2100 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | 500 | |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | from 5 to 15 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | 0,48 | |
| Charge type | cluster and conventional fragmentation, high-explosive, penetrating munitions, nuclear charges | |
| Combat units | 1 | inseparable |
| Type of basing | ground | self-propelled launcher 8x8 |
Thanks to its technical excellence, the OTRK, which was put into service in 2006, will have no analogues for at least another decade. Currently, the Russian Armed Forces have at least 120 Iskander mobile launchers.
Single-headed rockets
More warheads means more targets hit. A self-respecting ballistic missile, which has not reached the limits, has a minimum of three warheads. But there is simply not a single “multi-headed” cruise missile. Because they are prohibited.
In general, any “multi-headed” missiles are a powerful destabilizing factor. The ability to cover several targets with one missile at once makes a disarming strike simpler and more effective. On the other hand, if such a missile is destroyed in position, all its warheads will be lost at once. This means there is a great desire to use them first.
Modern cruise missiles can easily accommodate a couple of warheads
So they banned at least cruise missiles from having multiple warheads. Fortunately, there simply weren’t any of these in service yet. Attempts to limit blocks for ICBMs were also made. It was not possible to convince the military to abandon existing missiles; they only introduced some restrictions.
Nuclear space
Probably the most famous restriction that exists to this day is the ban on the placement of nuclear weapons in space. The ban applies to both the permanent deployment of atomic “gifts” in orbit and the use of orbital flight to increase the range of missiles. Of all the prohibitions, this is perhaps the most controversial. Weapons in orbit are not at all suitable for a quick strike, if we are talking about a high and long-term orbit. It is noticeable, it takes a long time to fly to the target from orbit - the enemy will definitely have time to react. At the same time, space-based weapons are difficult to suddenly destroy from Earth, because it takes even longer for the weapons to fly into orbit. So why the ban?
One of the many space bomber designs developed in the 50s and 60s
The answer here lies rather on the economic plane. Space exploration is already very expensive. And what kind of money will have to be poured into military space... In addition to the fact that atomic weapons need to be maintained in orbit, it would be nice to create a system for destroying enemy groups. And then the defense of his group. And then protection of means of destruction from enemy defense. It’s scary to imagine what wild sums all this could result in. In addition, nuclear weapons in low and partial orbits are very suitable for a quick and sudden strike. Therefore, the two superpowers simply agreed not to go into space for now. And from a PR point of view, it’s good - we are for peaceful space exploration. But there are suspicions that it is precisely because of the peaceful nature that space is being developed so slowly.
Launching nuclear weapons into partial low-Earth orbit using the example of the R-36orb rocket
"Tomahawk"
Developed by General Dynamics in the 1980s, Tomahawk cruise missiles have been among the best in the world for nearly two decades, thanks to their versatility, ability to move rapidly at ultra-low altitudes, significant combat power and impressive accuracy.
See also the article Tomahawk cruise missile and its modifications
They have been used by the US Army since their adoption in 1983 in many military conflicts. But the world's most advanced missiles failed the United States during its controversial 2022 strike on Syria.
Cruise missile "Tomahawk"
TTX BGM-109:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 6.25x053 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 1500 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 1 | |
| Fuel type | solid | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 333 | |
| Maximum flight range, km | from 900 to 2500 | depending on the starting method |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | from 5 to 80 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | 120 | |
| Charge type | cassette, armor-piercing, nuclear | |
| Combat units | 1 | not detachable |
| Type of basing | universal | ground mobile, surface, underwater, aviation |
Various modifications of the Tomahawks are equipped with American Ohio- and Virginia-class submarines, destroyers, missile cruisers, as well as the British nuclear submarines Trafalgar, Astute, and Swiftsure.
See also the article on the Project 955 Borei nuclear submarine and its technical characteristics
American ballistic missiles, the list of which is not limited to Tomahawk and Minuteman, are obsolete. BGM-109 is still in production. Production of only the aviation series has been discontinued.
Lost Inhibitions
Recently, the system of restrictions created during the Cold War has slowly begun to collapse. The two main losses are on everyone's lips: the ban on missile defense and ground-based medium- and short-range missiles.
The abandonment of missile defense at one time was also explained by the desire to achieve greater stability between the superpowers. After all, the first country to create a more or less efficient missile defense umbrella will be tempted to attack as quickly as possible - until the enemy has learned to break through this defense or has created his own. Based on this, those already lagging behind in the race for missile defense are faced with a choice: either attack before the creation of the missile defense umbrella is completed, or find themselves a loser in a nuclear war.
Proposed deployment zones for the Spartan and Sprint missile defense systems before they are limited by the ABM Treaty
But the agreement on limiting missile defense was fragile even during the Cold War. It is one thing to ban an expensive and not the most effective means of defense. But if new missile defense systems showed high efficiency, everyone would rush to make them, forgetting about prohibitions. An example of this is the story of the American Strategic Defense Initiative program.
American Pershing 2 missiles became the main reason for the ban on short- and medium-range ground-based missiles
The restriction on land-based short- and medium-range missiles was also dictated by the desire to limit first-strike capabilities. Due to their short flight time and high accuracy, such missiles are ideal for destroying targets such as missile silos, airfields and headquarters. So we decided to abandon them. But the world has changed, and suddenly it turned out that many people are making similar missiles - from the Chinese and Indians to the Koreans and Iranians. And the United States and the Russian Federation, even if they wanted, do not have the opportunity to force them all to support the ban.
Many new types of weapons, such as the Kinzhal missile, are fully covered by existing bans
The trend towards removing bans continues, and it is quite possible that other of the above restrictions will soon become a thing of the past. And then, on the one hand, we will again observe a riot of engineering, and on the other, the world will become much more unstable.
If you don't know how to dive, don't take a rocket
We are accustomed to the fact that the main marine carriers of missiles are submarines. But initially they could well have been surface ships. In the United States, they were thinking about equipping aircraft carriers, new nuclear-powered cruisers with missiles, and even converting Iowas into strategic missile carriers. We also had similar projects. But in the end, submarines were chosen as more durable and invisible. And the deployment of ballistic missiles with a range of more than 600 kilometers on surface ships was later completely banned.
Project to deploy Polaris missiles on the nuclear cruiser Long Beach
The main purpose of this restriction is, of course, not warships, but the placement of missiles on ships disguised as civilian fleets. No one wants to guess - is this, at first glance, peaceful container ship really harmless, or is it actually carrying a stock of missiles inside to completely destroy a medium-sized European country? And for warships, cruise missiles remained - because by the time the agreements were signed, they had already been installed on board and were not going to give them up.
Reconstruction of a North Korean ballistic missile carrier disguised as a cargo ship
R-36M "Satan"
Modern Russian silo-based ICBM missiles SS-18 in various modifications were and are the basis of Russia's nuclear triad. These world's best missiles have no analogues: neither in flight range, nor in technological equipment, nor in maximum charge power.
See also the article Satan ballistic missile and its technical characteristics
Modern air defense systems cannot effectively counter them. "Satan" has become the embodiment of the most modern ballistic technology. It destroys all types of targets and entire positional areas, ensuring the inevitability of a retaliatory nuclear strike in the event of an attack on the Russian Federation.
Launch of R-36M "Satan"
TTX ICBM SS-18:
| Name | Meaning | Note |
| Length and diameter, m | 34.3x3 | |
| Take-off weight, t | 208,3 | |
| Number of steps, pcs | 2 | |
| Fuel type | liquid | |
| Acceleration speed, m/s | 7900 | |
| Maximum missile range, km | 16300 | |
| Maximum deviation from target, m | 500 | |
| Weight of warhead, t | from 5.7 to 7.8 | |
| Charge type | thermonuclear | |
| Combat units | from 1 to 10 | separable, from 500 kt to 25 Mt |
| Type of basing | ground | mine |
Various modifications of the SS-18 have been in service with the Russian army since 1975. In total, 600 missiles of this type have been produced during this time. Currently, all of them are installed on modern Russian launch vehicles for combat duty. The R-36M is currently undergoing a planned replacement with a modified version, the more modern Russian R-36M2 Voevoda missile.
