Howitzers and mortars | USA
75 mm M1A1 L/16 (M-116) howitzer on an airborne carriage
The M-1A1 L-16 gun (post-war designation M-116) is a towed 75 mm pack howitzer that entered service in 1927. It was mainly used by mountain and airborne units, as well as the Marine Corps. The weapon was disassembled into several parts and transported on pack animals. During the modernization of the M-1A1, the M-8 carriage was developed, and the wooden wheels were replaced with metal ones with pneumatic tires. The howitzer was used by the armies of Great Britain, China and France. A total of 5.2 thousand guns were fired. The gun was equipped with ammunition with the following shells: high-explosive fragmentation "HE M-48 Shell" (ammunition length - 596 mm; weight - 8.3 kg; projectile weight - 6.6 kg; explosive weight - 676 g; muzzle velocity - 381 m /s; firing range - 8.7 km); armor-piercing cumulative "HEAT M-66 Shell" (ammunition length - 596 mm; weight - 7.3 kg; projectile weight - 5.9 kg; explosive weight - 453 g; initial speed - 305 m/s; firing range - 7 .2 km). Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 75 mm; length – 3.6 m; width – 1.2 m; height – 0.9 m; trunk length – 1.2 m; weight – 653 kg; rate of fire - 22 rounds per minute; calculation – 4 people.
Howitzer 105-mm Howitzer M-101
The 105-mm Howitzer howitzer had two designations: “M-101” and “M-2A1”. The gun was also installed on the M-7 Priest self-propelled gun and on some tanks. The howitzer had separate-case loading, and with the most powerful charge its maximum firing range reached 11.2 km. In total, over 10 thousand guns were produced. Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 105 mm; length – 5.9 m; width – 2.2 m; height – 1.7 m; trunk length – 2.3 m; weight – 2.3 t; ammunition weight 105x372R – 16.7 – 19.8 kg; projectile weight - 13.2 - 15.5 kg; initial speed – 381 – 472 m/h; rate of fire - 5 rounds per minute; transportation speed on the highway – up to 50 km/h; calculation – 6 people.
Howitzer M-3 105-mm Howitzer
The light howitzer "M3" was put into service in 1943 to equip the Airborne Forces. Two versions of the howitzer were produced with differences in barrels (T-7 and T-10) and three in transportation methods (M-3, M-3A1, M-3A2).
SUVs were used as tractors. The gun was supplied to England (2 pcs.), France (94 pcs.) and Latin American countries (18 pcs.). A total of 2,580 guns were delivered. Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 105 mm; length – 3.9 m; width – 1.7 m; height – 1.3 m; trunk length – 1.6 m; weight – 1.1 t; ammunition weight 105x372R - 14 kg; initial speed – 311 m/s; rate of fire - 4 rounds per minute; maximum range – 7.6 km.
Howitzer 155-mm Howitzer M-1 (M-114)
The 155-mm field howitzer was mass-produced in 1942-1945. under the designation “M-1”, after the war it received the index “M-114”. The howitzer had a monoblock barrel, a piston bolt, a hydraulic recoil brake and a hydropneumatic knurler. The sprung ride was equipped with wheels with pneumatic tires. In the combat position, the howitzer rested on the coulters of the sliding frames and the front folding stop. The wheels were hanging out. The gun was transported by a high-speed tracked tractor or a 5-ton army truck. The howitzer's ammunition included separate cartridge-loading rounds with fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation (regular and active-reactive), cassette (with arrow-shaped striking elements), smoke, chemical and lighting projectiles. To adjust the firing range there are 7 different charges. A total of 10.3 thousand guns were manufactured. Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 155 mm; length – 7.3 m; width – 2.4 m; height – 1.8 m; weight of the gun in the stowed position - 5.8 tons, in combat - 5.4 tons; trunk length – 3.6 m; projectile weight – 39-47 kg; initial speed – 563 m/s; rate of fire - 4 rounds per minute; maximum firing range – 14.6 km; calculation - 11 people.
Howitzer 203-mm Howitzer M-115
The 203-mm howitzer "M-115" was put into service in 1940 under the name "8-inch howitzer M-1". The designation "M-115" was adopted after the war. The gun was also installed on some tanks. The howitzer was equipped with ammunition containing high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive active-reactive and cluster grenades. The M-106 Shell high explosive fragmentation grenade (weight – 90 kg, explosive mass – 17 kg, initial speed – 594 m/s) penetrated 1.2 m of reinforced concrete at a distance of 4.5 km at an impact angle of 90°. A total of 1,006 guns were fired. Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 203 mm; length – 10.9 m; width – 2.8 m; height – 2.7 m; weight in stowed position - 13.4 tons; in combat - 10.9 tons; trunk length – 5.1 m; rate of fire – one shot in 2 minutes; projectile weight – 90 kg; firing range: from 5.6 km (charge No. 1 at an initial speed of 250 m/s) to 16.8 km (charge No. 7 at a speed of 594 m/s); calculation – 14 people.
Howitzer 240-mm Howitzer M-1918
The M-1918 howitzer was a copy of the French Mortier de 280 modèle 1914 Schneider gun with a reduced barrel caliber to 240 mm. It was in service from 1920-1943. The gun was transported by four heavy tracked tractors at a speed of 5 miles per hour. A total of 330 guns were built. Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 240 mm; weight – 18.7 t; trunk length – 5 m; projectile weight - 156 kg; charge weight – 16.6 kg; initial speed – 518 m/s; rate of fire - 12 rounds per hour; maximum range – 15 km; calculation – 12 people; the transition time from transport to combat position is 4-6 hours.
Howitzer 240-mm Howitzer M-1
The 240-mm howitzer "M-1", nicknamed the "Black Dragon", was put into service in 1941. The gun was transported disassembled into two parts.
The howitzer was also used in Great Britain. A total of 315 guns were fired. Howitzer performance characteristics: caliber – 240 mm; weight in combat position - 29.3 tons; width – 2.8 m; trunk length – 8.4 m; projectile weight - 163 kg; initial speed – 701 m/s; rate of fire - 1 shot in 2 minutes; maximum firing range – 23 km; calculation – 14 people. Share to:
The most powerful naval guns of World War II
Musashi fires its main gun, July 26, 1942.
The largest guns in history
. World War II demonstrated the importance of large caliber artillery. At the same time, the race of calibers took place not only on land, but also at sea. Almost all maritime powers developed powerful artillery systems for their battleships, which were supposed to provide the ships with superiority over the enemy.
Many countries have been able to develop artillery guns with a caliber of more than 400 mm for their surface warships. The Japanese went the furthest, arming the Yamato-class battleships with 460-mm naval guns. It was the Japanese naval gun that became the largest and most powerful among all naval guns that participated in World War II.
At the same time, the 406-mm caliber was conquered by the United States, which massively used such guns on its battleships. Germany and the USSR also created 406-mm naval guns, although they never made it to ships. The Germans were able to assemble at least a dozen 406 mm guns, all of which were used exclusively in coastal artillery. The Soviet Union created its 406 mm naval gun B-37. As part of the MP-10 experimental turret installation, the gun took part in the defense of Leningrad.
Yamato main caliber
Among the most powerful naval guns of the Second World War, the first place rightfully belongs to the Japanese naval 460-mm naval gun Type 94. This gun was in service with the two largest and most famous Japanese battleships today, Yamato and Musashi. It was planned that it would be installed on the third Yamato-class battleship, but Shinano was subsequently completed as an aircraft carrier, and it did not need main-caliber artillery.
Main caliber stern turret of the battleship Yamato with 460 mm Type 94 guns
Work on the 460-mm naval gun was carried out in Japan from 1934 to 1939, and engineer S. Hada supervised the work. The unique naval artillery was developed in the strictest secrecy. The gun was adopted under the designation 40-SK Mod. 94. This designation remained until the end of the war and was part of the disinformation.
The measures taken by the Japanese Navy to maintain secrecy around this artillery system were unprecedented. The Americans were able to learn about the true caliber of the artillery of the Yamato-class battleships only after the end of hostilities; before that, they believed that the most advanced Japanese battleships were armed with 406 mm guns.
The production of new guns continued in Japan from 1938 to 1940. During this time, it was possible to create 27 barrels, including two intended for field testing. Six complete three-gun turret installations were installed on the two battleships Yamato and Musashi, the remaining barrels were intended for further armament of the third battleship of this type.
The three-gun turret installations of the battleship Yamato weighed 2,510 tons, with ammunition - 2,774 tons, this exceeded the displacement of most destroyers of the Second World War. Armor-piercing and incendiary shells were developed for firing from 460 mm guns. The latter were, in fact, anti-aircraft ammunition containing 600 fragmentation and 900 incendiary elements. The 460 mm Type 91 armor-piercing shell was the heaviest shell used in World War II naval battles. Its mass was 1460 kg.
The 460 mm Type 94 naval gun could send shells weighing almost 1.5 tons to a maximum range of 42 km, with an altitude reach of 11 km. The initial flight speed of the projectile is 780–805 m/s. The maximum rate of fire of the guns was 1.5–2 rounds per minute. Elevation angles from -5 to +45 degrees.
Bow turrets with 460 mm guns of the battleship Mushasi during testing, May-June 1942
Barrel length of guns 40-SK Mod. 94 was 45 calibers, more than 20 meters. The weight of the barrel and bolt exceeded 165,000 kg. The shells of this artillery system had good armor penetration. At a distance of 20 kilometers, the 460-mm Yamato armor-piercing projectile penetrated 566 mm of vertical armor.
Experts rated the Japanese Type 94 naval gun as very reliable. The artillery system of the most powerful Japanese battleships did not suffer from the “childhood diseases” characteristic of complex equipment. True, this still did not allow the guns and battleships to express themselves. Created to fight the battleships of the American fleet, both Japanese heavy-duty battleships eventually became victims of aviation, without having time to inflict any significant losses on the enemy.
Guns for German super battleships
Before the outbreak of World War II, the battleships Bismarck and Tirpitz were laid down and built in Germany.
The battleships were commissioned after the start of hostilities. At the same time, the main caliber of the pride of the German fleet were 380 mm guns. These were powerful and quite successful guns, but at that time many battleships of Germany’s opponents could boast of a large caliber of artillery. The “N” type battleships were supposed to correct the situation at sea. As part of Germany's ambitious shipbuilding program of 1939 (hence the other name for the project "N-39"), it was planned to build six new type of battleships at once, which would surpass the Bismarck in size. The main armament of the new ships was to be 406 mm or 420 mm guns.
Turret installation of a 40 cm SKC/34 gun on the Trondenes battery in Norway
The development of these artillery systems was carried out in Germany in the 1930s. The guns were created by the Krupp concern and were fully ready by 1934, like the 380 mm Bismarck guns. The 406 mm guns were designated 40 cm SKC/34. The project provided for boring their barrels to a caliber of 420 mm; this type of gun was also planned to be used in the development of Project N battleships.
Due to the cancellation of the construction of N-class battleships, the guns were represented only in coastal artillery. Before the start of World War II, only two hulls of new battleships were laid down in Germany; the remaining ships were not even laid down. At the same time, the project was abandoned in October 1939 after the outbreak of World War II.
By that time, 12 406-mm guns had been assembled. Among them, one is experimental, three are in the ship version and 8 are in the coastal version. Ultimately, it was decided to use all the guns in coastal defense, where they became the basis of the most powerful German coastal batteries.
The 40 cm SKC/34 guns had a caliber of 406.4 mm and a barrel length of 52 calibers. The weight of the gun barrel and breech alone is estimated at 159,900 kg. The shutter is wedge, horizontal type. On ship versions, for ease of loading guns, the bolt had to open in different directions. The maximum gun elevation angles are 52 degrees. Another difference between the sea and coastal versions was the size of the charging chambers. The ship's guns have 420 cubic meters. dm, for coastal guns - 460 cubic meters. dm.
The barrel survivability of the 406 mm guns was estimated to be 180–210 rounds. Armor-piercing, semi-armor-piercing and high-explosive fragmentation shells weighing 1030 kg could be used as ammunition. Their maximum flight speed was 810 m/s, and their maximum firing range was up to 42–43 km. The rate of fire of the guns reached two shots per minute.
Lindemann battery. German sentry on duty near a 406 mm gun
Later, already in 1942, lightweight high-explosive fragmentation shells were designed specifically for coastal defense guns. These 610-kg ammunition at the maximum elevation of the gun developed a flight speed of up to 1050 m/s, and the maximum firing range soared to 56 km.
The 406-mm guns of coastal batteries were placed in single Schiessgerät C/39 mounts, providing elevation angles from -5 to +52 degrees. For additional protection, they were covered with concrete casemates. The armored towers were located in ring courtyards of concrete casemates, sunk into the ground to a depth of more than 11 meters. The crew of each gun consisted of 68 people, including 8 officers.
The Germans placed one of the batteries, consisting of three guns, near the small French town of Sangatte, west of Calais. The battery was named Lindemann. Since the autumn of 1942, this battery fired at Dover in Great Britain and the Strait of Dover. A total of 2,226 shells were fired at Dover from 1942 to 1944 (until the capture of the battery positions by Canadian troops).
The Germans placed two more batteries in Norway; in 1941, 8 guns were sent there, but one of them sank during transportation. The Germans used coastal batteries armed with 406 mm 40 cm SKC/34 guns to defend Narvik and Tromsø. After the end of World War II, these guns went to the Norwegian army. The last time they fired was in 1957, and in 1964 the batteries were finally disbanded.
The main caliber of battleships of the "Soviet Union" class
In the Soviet Union, as in Germany, before World War II there were ambitious plans for the development of the fleet. As part of the approved construction program of the “Large Sea and Ocean Fleet” in the USSR in the late 1930s – early 1940s, four Project 23 battleships of the “Soviet Union” type were laid down. Soviet battleships were supposed to be the largest and most powerful in the world, but none of them were ever completed.
B-37 cannon in a single-barrel MP-10 experimental installation in the workshop of the Novokramatorsk plant, 1939
The construction of battleships was stopped after the start of the Great Patriotic War; at that time, the readiness of the lead battleship "Soviet Union", laid down in 1938 in Leningrad, was 19.44 percent. And if the battleships were never created, then the main caliber artillery for them was developed. The artillery armament of the Soviet super-battleships relied on the 406-mm B-37 naval gun. The battleships were planned to be armed with 9 such main caliber guns, arranged in three turrets.
Due to the termination of the project for battleships of the "Soviet Union" type in July 1941, work on the further development of the B-37 naval gun and the MK-1 turret for it was curtailed. At the same time, a ready-made experimental single-barrel MP-10 range mount with a 406-mm B-37 gun took part in the defense of Leningrad. During the period of hostilities, the gun fired 81 shells at German troops in the vicinity of the city.
The first B-37 gun was ready by December 1937; the guns were assembled at . A total of 12 guns and five swinging parts for them, as well as a batch of shells, were produced. By the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, one of the guns as part of the MP-10 experimental installation was located at the Scientific Research Artillery Range near Leningrad (Rzhevka).
It was not possible to evacuate the installation due to its enormous weight, so the gun ended up taking part in the defense of the city on the Neva. The installations were prepared for all-round fire and were additionally armored. The Soviet 406-mm cannon fired its first shots at the advancing German troops on August 29, 1941.
406-mm shell from the B-37 gun. Exhibit of the Naval Museum, St. Petersburg
Finding yourself under the shells of this weapon was an extremely unpleasant experience. 406-mm armor-piercing shells weighing 1,108 kg left behind a crater with a diameter of 12 meters and a depth of up to three meters. Depending on the elevation angle of the gun, the rate of fire was supposed to be from 2 to 2.6 rounds per minute. The survivability of the bonded barrel was 173 shots, which was confirmed during testing. The maximum firing range of the gun was approximately 45 km.
The weight of the B-37 gun barrel with bolt was 136,690 kg, the barrel length was 50 calibers. The elevation angles of the gun ranged from -2 to +45 degrees. It was planned to use armor-piercing, semi-armor-piercing and high-explosive shells to fire the gun. The latter did not have time to be developed. At the same time, an armor-piercing 406-mm projectile weighing 1108 kg when fired developed an initial speed of 830 m/s. At a distance of 5.5 kilometers, such a projectile is guaranteed to penetrate armor plate 614 mm thick.
After the end of the war, the use of the MP-10 prototype for shooting new ammunition continued into the 1950s and 1960s. One installation with a B-37 gun has survived to this day, which is still located at the Rzhev artillery range near St. Petersburg.
British and American rocket artillery of World War II
I saw this photo and was surprised - I had never seen anything like this before. We are all accustomed to Katyushas on a car chassis, or at most to guides standing directly on the ground. And here it is! I dug the topic deeper and saw even more interesting and unusual options.
Look here: Work on the creation of combat missiles began in Great Britain in the late 30s. The British military leadership was focused on traditional means of hitting targets on the battlefield (barrel artillery and aviation) and did not perceive rockets as a serious weapon.
British military missiles were originally intended exclusively for firing at air targets when the need to improve Britain's air defenses was realized shortly before the outbreak of war. It was decided to compensate for the lack of the required number of anti-aircraft guns with simple and inexpensive rockets.
The first developed 2-inch anti-aircraft missile, when launched, dragged behind it a thin steel wire, which, according to the developers, was supposed to become entangled in the propellers of enemy aircraft, thus causing them to fall. There was also an option with 250 gr. fragmentation charge, which had a self-destructor set to 4-5 seconds of flight - by this time the rocket should have reached an estimated altitude of about 1370 m. A small number of 2-inch rockets and launchers for them were fired, which were used exclusively for educational and training purposes .
A 3-inch anti-aircraft missile, the warhead of which had the same mass as a 94-mm anti-aircraft projectile, turned out to be more promising. The rocket was a simple tubular structure with stabilizers; the engine used a charge of smokeless powder - SCRK brand cordite, already used in the 2-inch rocket. The rocket weighing 25 kg had a ceiling of about 6500 m.
The missiles and single-shot launcher were successfully tested in 1939. In the same year, serial production of missiles and launchers began.
Missile launches from these early installations were not always reliable, and their accuracy was so poor that only barrage anti-aircraft fire was possible. Soon, to increase the likelihood of hitting an air target, a installation with two guides was adopted. Subsequently, the efficiency of anti-aircraft rocket launchers was increased by increasing the number of missiles on launchers and improving proximity missile fuses.
Mobile installations were created on a carriage of 3-inch anti-aircraft guns, which from 36 rail guides could fire volleys of 9 missiles.
And the most powerful was a stationary coastal defense installation, firing 4 salvoes of 20 missiles, which came into operation in 1944.
3-inch rockets proved to be much more effective as aircraft weapons. During the war, 3-inch rockets were used from aircraft to combat armored vehicles and even to sink German submarines on the surface.
Some Cromwell tanks were equipped with two 3-inch anti-aircraft missiles mounted on rails along the sides of the tank turrets. There have also been attempts to install such launchers on armored vehicles.
Beginning in 1944, the Allies began to push back the Japanese in Asia. Fighting in the jungle was characterized by relatively short firing distances and often the inability to bring up artillery to destroy Japanese pillboxes.
To solve this problem, a reactive system was developed, which became known under the code name LILO.
The launch device was carried to the firing position by one person, and the second carried the rocket in a backpack. Upon arrival at the site, the missile was inserted into the tube from the front, the elevation angle was adjusted by the rear support legs, and guidance was carried out through an open sight. The launch was carried out remotely using an electric igniter from a 3.5 V battery.
There were two modifications of this weapon: 83 mm - weighing 17.8 kg carried 1.8 kg of explosives, and 152 mm - weighing 35 kg carried 6.24 kg of explosives. LILO were capable of entering the ground to a depth of 3 m, also breaking through log flooring, which was enough to destroy any Japanese bunker.
The development of jet weapons in Great Britain was primarily focused on air defense, but in anticipation of the inevitable Allied landing on the Atlantic coast, a light weapon capable of producing a high density of fire in a short period of time was required.
Structurally, this was realized by connecting the rocket engine of a 3-inch aircraft rocket with a 13-kg warhead of a 127-mm artillery shell. To increase firing accuracy, the missiles were spun from screw guides when launched.
The launchers were installed on landing ships for fire suppression in the landing area. The naval system received the original name “Mattress”.
The land version of this installation became the “Land Mattress”. Army towed launchers had 32 barrels and an elevation angle: from 23° to 45°, a maximum firing range of up to 7225 m. Later, 24-charge lightweight installations were created. Fire control was carried out using a remote control. During the march, the installation was towed by a regular army truck.
The first British "Land Mattress" were used in Sicily in 1943. These installations especially distinguished themselves during the crossing of the Scheldt River and the assault on Walcheren in 1944, after which several more artillery rocket batteries were created.
The installations arrived in significant quantities to the troops only at the beginning of November 1944, so they no longer had a serious impact on the course of hostilities. Attempts to use the Land Mattress in Burma were not very successful due to low mobility. Installations on a self-propelled chassis were required, but the developed launchers on a jeep chassis were too late for the war.
Missiles from the Hedgehog naval anti-submarine bomber, which was developed in Great Britain and installed on many British and American warships, were used against ground targets.
Hedgehog bomb launcher
The 178-mm projectile, upgraded for firing along the coast, with an increased firing range, contained up to 16 kg of Torpex, which guaranteed the destruction of any field fortification or anti-landing barrier upon impact. There was also an incendiary version, which, upon explosion, covered everything within a radius of 25 meters with burning white phosphorus.
Bombers with modernized rockets were used both from landing ships to “clean up” the coast and were installed on Matilda tanks.
"Matilda" armed with an anti-submarine bomb launcher - Matilda Hedgehog, is on display at the Australian Museum in Puckapunyal. A Hedgehog bomb launcher is installed at the rear of the vehicle.
The Americans began developing their own missiles almost simultaneously with the British, however, the result was much better. During the course of the war, several different types of 4.5 in (114 mm) rockets were developed and put into production. The most popular was the M8 aircraft jet projectile, developed for arming attack aircraft and produced since 1943, weighing 17.6 kg; it had a length of 911 mm and a caliber of 114 mm.
M8 rocket
In addition to US attack aircraft, M8 shells were also actively used by ground forces, mounting multi-barrel launchers on tanks, trucks, jeeps and armored personnel carriers, and in the navy - on ships. Despite the “aviation orientation” of the M8 missiles, ground forces and the navy spent several times more of these missiles, using them from multi-barreled multiple rocket launchers.
In 1943, the T27 Xylophone unit entered service with the US Army. The units, arranged in a single row, were mounted on modified 2.5-ton GMC CCKW-353 6x6 or Studebaker truck chassis. In terms of accuracy, firing range and salvo power, they were inferior to the Soviet BM-13.
American MLRS T27 Xylophone
Lighter installations have also been developed in the USA. As a base, modified chassis of off-road vehicles such as Willys or Dodge “three-quarter” WC51 were used.
Installation T23
At the rear of the vehicle, pipes for 28 unguided rockets were installed in two rows.
The most famous American MLRS was the T34 CALLIOPE.
The M4 Sherman medium tank served as the basis for the rocket system. A package of 60 tubular guides for 4.5-inch (114 mm) M8 missiles was mounted on its turret. The weight of the salvo was 960 kg, the maximum firing range was 3800 m, the salvo time was 15-20 seconds.
The horizontal guidance of the rocket launcher at the target was carried out by the crew commander by turning the turret. Vertical aiming was carried out by raising or lowering the gun barrel, to which a package of guides was connected by means of a rigid rod. The total weight of the installation was about 1 ton.
Reloading the system on the battlefield was very problematic, and therefore it was simply thrown off the tank immediately after a salvo. To do this, only one electrical connector was disconnected and three bolts were knocked out with a sledgehammer. Subsequently, the installation was modernized and it became possible to get rid of it without the crew leaving the tank.
A common tactic was massive shelling of enemy positions in order to suppress anti-tank weapons from an MLRS mounted on top of the tank's turret. After which the crew quickly got rid of the launcher and went on the attack on a par with conventional linear vehicles. Taking into account the usually “disposable” use of the launcher, plastic and cardboard guides for missiles were subsequently adopted.
There were several versions of these installations, which were popular among the troops and were actively used in battles.
Faced with numerous, often very sophisticated Japanese fortifications and firing points during the battles for the atolls, the Americans hastily created and adopted a single-shot M12 launcher for 114-mm M8 rockets, similar to the British LILO. Both plastic, disposable launchers and reusable magnesium alloy launchers were used. However, the weight of the warhead of the 114-mm M8 projectile did not exceed 2 kg, and the installation’s effectiveness against protected targets was often insufficient.
The most “multi-barrel” were the T44 launcher with 120 “tubes”, on the loading platform of a DUKW amphibious truck or LVT amphibious vehicle, and the “Scorpion” launcher with 144 barrels, based on the DUKW amphibian.
The American Navy and Marines actively used 114-mm shells of the 4.5″BBR type (BBR - Beach Barrage Rocket - a missile for the destruction of coastal structures).
4.5″BBR rocket
The 4.5″BBR rocket had a caliber of 114.3 mm, its length was 760 mm, and its weight was 13 kg. A powder propellant charge weighing 6.5 kg provided a maximum projectile speed of 233 m/s, and the firing range was about 1 km. The warhead contained 2.9 kg of trinitrotoluene; its effect was comparable to a 105-mm howitzer high-explosive fragmentation projectile.
Ship-based launchers for 4.5″BBR shells were packages of honeycomb guides mounted on the deck of landing fire support ships at an angle of 45° to the horizon. Each of these ships could fire several hundred rockets in a matter of seconds, ensuring the destruction of enemy defenses and manpower on the shore. In 1942, ship-based launchers were used during the landing of Allied forces in Casablanca, and since 1943 they have been widely used in amphibious operations on the Pacific islands.
Improvised 4.5″BBR rocket launcher
The first land launchers for 4.5″BBR projectiles were improvised grooved wooden guides that the US Marines used to harass Japanese positions.
Division of American 4.5″BBR rocket launchers on trucks
Also, the simplest launchers were mounted on light all-terrain vehicles; targeting was carried out by turning the vehicle accordingly. The shooting was controlled using a remote control.
Absolutely all launchers of 4.5″BBR rockets had a large dispersion when firing and could only be used for striking areas. However, sailors and marines had no shortage of ammunition: during the war years, the United States produced more than 1,600,000 4.5″BBR missiles.
Despite their fairly widespread use, the available rocket munitions did not satisfy the American military in terms of accuracy and power at the target. In this regard, the Americans switched to the principle of stabilizing missiles by rotation.
The 4.5-inch M16 rocket had a length of 787 mm and a mass of 19.3 kg, including 2.16 kg of rocket fuel and 2.36 kg of high-explosive explosives. Its initial speed was 253 m/s, the maximum flight range was 4805 m. Its stabilization in flight by rotation around the longitudinal axis is ensured by a turbine screwed into the bottom of the powder engine, which has 8 gas nozzles inclined to the axis of the projectile. The M16 missiles no longer entered service with American aviation, being purely ground-based for multiple launch rocket systems.
T66 towed launcher
The T66 towed launcher was developed specifically for this missile. It consists of 24 aluminum tubular guides combined into a package mounted on a two-wheeled carriage with sliding frames.
In the vertical plane, aiming is provided in the range of angles from 0° to +45°, in the horizontal plane - within 20°. The launcher was loaded from the muzzle. The weight of the launcher without shells is 556 kg. This made it possible to use Willys-type all-terrain vehicles for transportation. Firing from the installation was carried out using a remote control.
The dispersion of the shells was relatively small. It took about 90 seconds to fully equip the T66 installation with missiles.
The T66 launcher, in terms of its totality of characteristics, was the most advanced American MLRS used in World War II, but it was used only in the final stages of hostilities, and in very small quantities.
In 1943, the United States adopted the 182 mm (7.2 inch) Ml7 unguided rocket, intended primarily for the destruction of long-term defensive structures. The length of the Ml7 projectile was 880 mm, the total weight was 27.5 kg. During engine operation, the projectile accelerated to a speed of 210 m/s, the firing range was approximately 3.2 km.
There was also an improved version of this projectile - M25. It had a head of a different design, the length of the projectile was increased to 1250 mm, and the weight was 26 kg. Compared to 114 mm rockets, the new projectiles had a shorter range and a more powerful high-explosive fragmentation warhead.
The T40 launcher for twenty M17 rockets was also mounted on the Sherman, similar to the T34 CALLIOPE MLRS.
The installation consisted of 20 honeycomb type guides. The package of guides itself had armor protection, and in its front part the protection was made in the form of armor flaps that fold up and down.
T40 launchers were first used in 1944 during the landing of Anglo-American troops in Normandy, and they were also used in battles in Northern Italy.
When assessing the Anglo-American MLRS, it is worth noting that, unlike the USSR and Germany, they were never considered by the Allied armies as an important means of engaging the enemy by fire. This can be explained by the overwhelming superiority over German troops in classical means: cannon artillery and aviation.
In terms of their combat characteristics, American, and especially British, rockets were significantly inferior to those used by Soviet and German artillerymen. This was reflected in the tactics of their use: British and American MLRS very rarely fired at enemy rear lines, usually limiting themselves to providing direct fire support to their advancing units. Source
Infantry artillery: a colorful past and an unknown futureAmerican 105 mm M3 howitzer (top) and 75 mm M1A1 light howitzer (bottom)
The discussion about ways to develop infantry (regimental, assault) artillery continues. Our article, published in “T and V” No. 2 for 2001, raised the question that successful combat operations in regional conflicts are impossible without mobile helicopter-transportable assault guns weighing up to one ton.
Regarding the article, experts expressed a very wide range of opinions to the author - from full support to stinging reproaches for the propaganda of the “people's howitzer” and the “squeaker of the 21st century.” Let's try to figure it out anyway.
In the modern understanding, infantry artillery (battalion, regimental, infantry support artillery) is a type of weapon that is organizationally part of the lower echelons of the infantry and operates in battle in its formations.
The main property of infantry artillery is its mobility, i.e. ultimately the low mass of the gun. In the Russian army, regimental artillery as a type of artillery (along with field, siege and fortress) arose during the military reforms of Peter I and was most widely used during the 1st Caucasian War and the Turkestan Wars. However, historically, the emergence of full-fledged infantry artillery usually dates back to the period of the second half of the First World War, during which the need for operational artillery support for maneuverable infantry actions became very clear. During and after the breakthrough of the enemy's front line of defense, the infantry found itself without the necessary artillery support. The commanders of companies, battalions and regiments clearly realized that without light guns capable of accompanying the infantry with “fire and wheels” and quickly suppressing machine gun nests, losses became unbearable.
By this time, experience in designing light guns had already been accumulated in many countries during the development of mountain artillery, which emerged as a type of weapon at the end of the 19th century. In terms of their tactical and technical characteristics, mountain guns were fully consistent with the required infantry guns. The main difference between mountain tools was the ability to disassemble them into several parts for pack transportation. One of the world's best examples of mountain guns of that period were the Russian three-inch (76.2 mm) mountain guns of the 1904 and 1909 models. (weight in combat position 330 and 624 kg, respectively).
Already in the very initial period of development of infantry artillery, its competing types arose - classic guns (cannons, howitzers and mortars), mortars, recoilless rifles and light rocket launchers. Mortars developed most intensively. For example, at the beginning of the war the German army had 160 mortars (44 heavy and 116 medium), and at the end of the war - 16,000 mortars.
Japanese 70-mm battalion gun "Type 92"
150 mm infantry gun sIG 33 (Germany)
During the period between the First and Second World Wars, the most intensive development of light infantry guns took place in Germany. This was explained by the fact that, according to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was prohibited from having heavy artillery weapons. During this period of the rapid revival of German militarism and the developing military doctrine of Germany, which envisaged the conduct of fast-moving wars of maneuver (“Blitzkrieg”), German designers paid unrelenting attention to the problem of the mobility of infantry guns, i.e. first of all, reducing their mass. In this regard, the most striking development was the 7.5 cm infantry gun IG18 (Infanterie Geschutze 18). The gun was in service with infantry battalions, had a mass of 400 kg, could be towed by horse-drawn vehicles and all Wehrmacht military vehicles, and could easily be rolled over a distance of hundreds of meters by crew forces. To load the cannon, it was necessary to lift the rear of the barrel, insert the projectile into the breech and return the barrel to its place. With an initial projectile speed of 210 m/s, a fairly large firing range of 3375 m was achieved, providing a solution to almost all fire problems. ;
dachas of battalion artillery. Two models of this weapon were also developed to equip mountain and landing troops, suitable for transportation in disassembled form. The main disadvantage of the IG18 cannon, like any other cannon with a single-frame carriage, was the small horizontal firing angle (12*). It is interesting to note that the mass of the gun was at the upper limit of the class of light infantry guns (weight up to 400 kg) according to the modern classification of infantry guns developed by the Research Institute of SM MSTU. N.E. Bauman (class of medium infantry guns - 400-800 kg, heavy infantry guns 800-1200 kg).
Among other guns of this class, we note the domestic 76-mm battalion mortar BOD and the Japanese 70-mm battalion gun Type 92. The BOD mortar was developed in accordance with the specifications of the artillery weapon system approved by the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR on August 5, 1933, and had excellent characteristics (firing range of 5 km with a system weight of 148 kg). Other types of light infantry mortars were also developed. In 1931 alone, six samples of battalion mortars were tested. As always happens, a one-sided passion for one type of weapon led to the abandonment of another important type - mortars. During this period, the GAU ignored mortar weapons. The development of mortars was not even included in the artillery weapons system for the second five-year plan.
After the development of the 82-mm battalion mortar in 1936 and its successful testing, a shift in the other direction occurred. Intensive development of mortars of all calibers began. As always, the engineers quickly corrected the situation created by the stereotypical thinking of the military leadership. By the beginning of the Second World War, the Red Army received excellent examples of 82 mm and 120 mm mortars. Their mass production was mastered. On July 1, 1941, there were 14,200 82 mm mortars and 3,800 120 mm mortars. During the war, mortarmen spent 199 million mines, which amounted to 53% of the total ammunition consumption of field artillery of the Red Army. No one is going to deny the huge role that mortars played during the Second World War. According to materials from the archives of the Military Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineering Troops and Signal Corps, Germany suffered the greatest losses in manpower on the Soviet-German front from mortar fire. These losses amounted to about 3 million people. Nevertheless, it remains obvious that stopping the successfully begun development of infantry mortars (and infantry guns in general) was a mistake. The mortar could not solve a number of fire tasks that could easily be handled by an infantry gun with a flat trajectory. This primarily includes the fight against tanks, which became completely accessible to low-speed infantry guns with the advent of the cumulative projectile in 1943, and in general the fight against targets that have vertical projections (buildings, exits of tunnels and caves, concrete gouges and concrete caps of bunkers, etc. .P.). Significant disadvantages of the mortar were also the small angles of horizontal fire, the long time it took to install the mortar into position, especially in rocky soil conditions, associated with the need to separate a platform for the base plate, the lack of an armor shield protecting the crew from enemy machine-gun fire, including aircraft fire. stormtroopers. The lack of a balanced assessment of the two main types of heavy infantry weapons led to the fact that by the beginning of the Great Patriotic War the army approached without battalion artillery of 76 mm caliber and larger.
The Japanese 70-mm battalion gun "Type 92" was the lightest mass-produced infantry gun (weighing 212 kg) and at the same time the most famous artillery gun of the Japanese army during the Second World War. The gun was easy to handle and could be disassembled into parts for transportation. The carriage had a pneumohydraulic device. The wheels were mounted on cranked axles, so that for better stability the gun could be mounted directly on the ground or, on the contrary, raised with increasing recoil length when firing at large elevation angles. With a single-frame carriage, the gun had a quite decent horizontal aiming angle of 45°. After the surrender of Japan, a large number of these guns were captured by the Chinese army, which used them until the mid-50s.
75 mm infantry gun IG18 (Germany)
76 mm gun mod.
1943 (USSR) Table 1 75-76 – mm light and medium infantry and mountain guns
| Elevation angle | Horizontal angle | Projectile weight, kg | Initial projectile speed, m/s | Maximum firing range, m | Muzzle energy W0, MJ | W0/M J/kg | |||
| Light infantry guns (weight less than 400 kg) | |||||||||
| 76-mm battalion mortar B-6 (BPK) (USSR) | 105 | 8,4 | 0? up to +70? | 22? | 3 | 180 | 2000 | 0,048 | 462 |
| Type 92 70 mm battalion gun (Japan) | 212 | 10,3 | +4? up to +75? | 45? | 3,76 | 198 | 2788 | 0,073 | 347 |
| 7.5 cm infantry gun IG18 (Germany) | 400 | P.2 | -10? up to +75? | 12? | 6,0 | 210 | 3375 | 0,132 | 330 |
| 76-mm mountain gun mod. 1904 (Russia) | 428 | 13 | -10? up to +25? | 6? | 6,5 | 290 | 4300 | 0,27 | 630 |
| Medium infantry and mountain guns (weight 400-800 kg) | |||||||||
| 75-mm mountain gun Skoda mod. 1915 (Austria-Hungary) | 620 | 15 | -9? up to +50? | 7? | 6,5 | 350 | 7000 | 0,4 | 642 |
| 75 mm mountain gun Geb.G. 36 (Germany) | 750 | 19,3 | -2? up to +70? | 40? | 5,75 | 476 | 9150 | 0,65 | 868 |
| 75-mm light howitzer M1A1 (USA) | 607 | 17,6 | -5? up to +45? | 6? | 6,35 | 81 | 8800 | 0,46 | 759 |
| 76-mm mountain gun mod. GL. (Russia) | 735 | 23 | -10? up to +70? | 45? | 6,28 | 485 | 10000 | 0,74 | 1004 |
| 76-mm mountain gun mod. 1938 (USSR) | 785 | -8? up to +70? | 10? | 623 | 495 | 10100 | 0,76 | 972 | |
| 76-mm regimental gun mod. 1927 (USSR) | 740 | 16,5 | -5? up to +24.5? | 6? | 6,2 | 380 | 6700 | 0,45 | 605 |
| 76-mm regimental gun mod. 1943 OB-25 (USSR) | 600 | 19,4 | -8? up to +25? | 60? | 6,2 | 262 | 4200 | 0,21 | 355 |
| table 2 | |||||||||
| Light guns 95-152 mm caliber | |||||||||
| 105 mm howitzer M3 USA | 1132 | 16,5 | -9? to +89? | 45? | 14,96 | 311 | 7585 | 0,72 | 639 |
| 105 mm gun OTO Melara mod. 1956 (Italy) | 1273 | 14 | 7? up to +65? | 56? | 14,97 | 416 | 11100 | 1,29 | 1017 |
| 95 mm infantry howitzer (England) | 954 | 19,8 | -5? up to +30? | 8? | 11,3 | 330 | 7300 | 0,62 | 645 |
| 120 mm Krupp howitzer mod. 1905 (Germany) | 1125 | 12 | 0? up to +42? | 5? | 20 | 275 | 5800 | 0,76 | 672 |
| 120 mm gun 2B16 Nona - K (Russia) | 1200 | 24,2 | -10? up to +80? | 60? | 17,3 | 367 | 8800 | 1,16 | 971 |
| 152 mm regimental mortar NM mod. 1931 (USSR) | 1150 | 9,3 | -2? up to +72? | 12? | 38,2 | ~ 250 | 5285 | 1,19 | 1038 |
The middle class of 75-76 mm guns is mainly represented by mountain guns and actually fits into the mass range of 600-800 kg. The 75-mm Skoda mountain gun mod. was considered one of the most successful designs of its time. 1915 Between 1899 and 1915 The Austro-Hungarian army, taking into account the nature of the upcoming war in southern Europe (the Balkans, Alps, Carpathians), tested four different types of mountain guns before settling on the Skoda M1915 cannon. After the First World War, this weapon was in service with the armies of Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia and was used until the beginning of the Second World War.
A well-known weapon of World War II was the US M1A1 75mm light howitzer. It could be disassembled into seven parts, which made it possible for it to be parachuted and delivered by pack transport. The howitzer, in particular, was widely used in the mountainous regions of Italy and on the remote islands of the Pacific Ocean. The howitzer was used in American and British airborne formations until the mid-60s.
The purely infantry gun of this class was the 76-mm regimental gun mod. 1943
It would be useful to note that Russian artillery in the entire history of its existence had only two regimental guns - mod. 1927 and arr. 1943 There were no regimental guns in Tsarist Russia. The experience of maneuver operations of the Civil War revealed an urgent need for light and mobile infantry guns. Therefore, the first weapon created in Soviet times was the 76-mm regimental gun mod. 1927, developed and put into production by the Putilov plant. With a barrel length of 16.5 calibers and a projectile weight of 6.2 kg, the gun had an initial speed of 380 m/s, the maximum firing range was 6700 m. The mass of the gun in the firing position was 740 kg and already at that time was considered too large for an infantry escort gun . The gun had a small maximum elevation angle of 24.5? (with a undermined trunk - about 40?) and a single-frame carriage (horizontal aiming angle 6' - 3" in each direction). The latter made it impossible to effectively fight tanks.
During the war, due to the urgent need of the troops, an attempt was made to create a lightweight regimental gun by applying the barrel of a 76-mm cannon mod. 1927 on the carriage of a 45-mm anti-tank gun mod. 1942 M-42. The development was carried out by the Design Bureau of Plant No. 172 (Motovilikha) under the leadership of M.Yu. Tsiryulnikov. The transition to a carriage with sliding frames made it possible to sharply increase the horizontal firing angle (up to 60'). At the same time, the new gun turned out to be clearly overweight (600 kg). This stands out especially clearly when compared with the mountain cannon mod. 1904, which has higher ballistic characteristics and weighs 330 kg.
Despite its shortcomings, the cannon was widely used in the war.
A total of 5,000 guns were manufactured. The gun's ammunition included unitary rounds with the OF-350 high-explosive fragmentation projectile, an armor-piercing and cumulative projectile.
The 75-76 mm infantry guns discussed above do not exhaust the extensive list of guns weighing up to 1200 kg or slightly exceeding this value, classified above as infantry. Of these, the 152-mm mortar “NM” mod. 1931 (“German mortar”), developed and introduced into service with rifle regiments of the Red Army. On November 1, 1936, the Red Army had 100 mortars in service. Unfortunately, an ill-conceived decision led to the removal of this system from service. At the same time, the Germans have its analogue 15 cm SIG 33 (Schwere Infanterie Geschutze), albeit heavier, and showed excellent results. During the war, over 20 thousand of these guns were produced in towed and self-propelled versions. The simple and reliable design of the gun operated flawlessly in the most severe weather conditions, in sand, snow and mud.
105-mm gun of the Italian model. 1956 (1273 kg) was developed in the 50s. as a standard howitzer of NATO countries, capable of firing standardized 105-mm US M1 series projectiles and suitable for transportation by helicopter. The 1956 model howitzer turned out to be an extremely maneuverable and easy-to-handle system and is used by the armies of NATO countries to this day.
The development of domestic artillery in the post-war period took place in difficult conditions. The main role in this was played by the erroneous policy regarding the artillery of the country's top leadership in the person of N.S. Khrushchev. Not only infantry, but all artillery in general was declared a “stone-nuclear” archaism. However, already at the end of the 50s. the Korean and Middle Eastern wars, and subsequently the Vietnam War, showed that it was too early to bury artillery. Against the backdrop of the development of a large number of regional conflicts in the world, it became clear that the role of artillery not only did not decrease, but, on the contrary, increased sharply. At the same time, the expensive and complex artillery equipment of the main forces, highly effective in the conditions of a large-scale classical war, turned out to be unsuitable in the conditions of regional conflicts, where properties such as air and helicopter transportability, high mobility, short reaction time, and ease of maintenance come to the fore. At the same time, the requirements for firing range, which are undoubtedly dominant for the field artillery of the main forces, are relegated to the background in regional conflicts.
105 mm gun mod.
1956 (Italy) Table 3
| Class | Caliber, mm | Max. firing range, km | Weight of gun, kg |
| Long range | 152-155 | 25-100 | 7000-10000 |
| Medium range | 152-155 | 15-20 | 3000-4000 |
| Short range (infantry) | 76,100, 120, 152 | 3-8 | less than 1200 |
155 mm howitzer M-389
152-mm howitzer 2A61 “PAT-B”
The gradual realization that “the wrong wars require the wrong weapons” and that attempts to win a regional conflict with heavy conventional artillery are doomed to failure has led to the development of lightweight guns in the last decade. Examples include the domestic 152-mm regimental howitzer 2A61 "Pat-B" (weight 4350 kg) and its export version 155-mm howitzer M-389, developed by the Yekaterinburg State Unitary Enterprise "Plant No. 9", English 155-mm howitzers UFH (3630 kg ) from VSEL and LTH (3810 kg), American 155-mm howitzer LW155 (XM 777) of the Marine Corps (4080 kg).
These samples have nothing to do with the problem of infantry guns. These howitzers are light and even “ultralight” (UFH - Ultralight Field Howitzer) only in comparison with conventional long-range field howitzers such as M198 (7200 kg), FH - 70, (9300 kg), 2A65 "Msta-B" (7000 kg) etc. It is very doubtful that the Pat-B howitzer can be classified as a regimental (infantry) gun. The firing range (15,200 m) is excessive for a regimental gun, and the weight of 4,350 kg is prohibitively high. A three-frame carriage with all-round firing for an infantry (assault) gun is an unnecessary luxury. No one would object to such “bells and whistles” if they did not entail an increase in the mass of the gun.
The only lightweight towed system that can reasonably be classified as an infantry system is the 120 mm 2B16 Nona-K gun with a mass of 1200 kg, which is at the upper limit of the accepted mass range. This weapon was developed by TsNIITochmash and is officially in service with air assault brigades. The system most likely represents a kind of compromise between infantry and field systems. For an infantry gun it is heavy, for a field gun it is insufficient in terms of maximum firing range (HE shell - 8.8 km, HE mine - 7.1 km, HE active-reactive mine - 12.8 km). The use of projectiles with ready-made rifling on the leading belt has both negative and positive aspects. An undeniably positive element is the successful design of the projectiles (designer M.M. Konovaev) and, in particular, the large mass of the explosive charge (A-IX-2) 4.9 kg (filling coefficient 0.283 - very high!).
Thus, of the three main classes of towed artillery pieces (long, medium and short range), only two classes actually exist today. There are no infantry guns, and no one is developing them, because the military does not give such a task. With a tenacity worthy of better use, the real state of affairs is ignored. Meanwhile, estimates show that several hundred light assault guns in battalions, companies, border outposts and, perhaps, even platoons could radically change the situation in all southern explosive areas. The cost of a thousand of these howitzers is comparable to the cost of one combat aircraft. Based on the “cost-effectiveness” criterion, it is difficult to find an example of a more rational investment in the security of the country and ensuring its integrity.
American 155 mm howitzer LW155
English 105 mm light howitzer
The enormous export potential of infantry guns cannot be discounted. This niche in the global arms market is currently unoccupied by anyone.
Another important and promising aspect of the use of infantry guns, due to the flatness of their trajectory, is the possibility of using projectiles with axial directed fields of ready-made striking elements, providing large depths of destruction. There are a lot of new ideas in this area. For more information about this, see “T and V”, No. 4, 7, 1999 (“Return of Shrapnel”).
In conclusion, we formulate modern requirements for an infantry gun: gun weight, firing range, cost - in accordance with the table
| Caliber, mm | 76 | 100 | 120 | 152 |
| Weight of gun, kg | 236 | 400 | 580 | 925 |
| Maximum firing range, m | 5200 | 5800 | 6100 | 6500 |
| Estimated cost, thousand dollars | 60 | 70 | 80 | 100 |
• both lightweight projectiles with a high filling coefficient and standard ones can be used for shooting;
• the ability to fire high-precision projectiles (HPT) is provided, at least in calibers of 120 and 152 mm, including standard HPT “Sentimeter” and “Krasnopol”. In this case, the target should be illuminated directly from the gun location;
• the gun must have a two-frame sliding carriage with a horizontal aiming angle of at least 80° and a vertical aiming angle of -5° to +50°;
• the armor shield of the gun must provide protection for the crew during contact combat from machine gun and sniper fire from large-caliber weapons (12.7 mm DShK, NSV, Kord machine guns, 12.7 mm OSV-96 sniper rifle).
• the time from the start of shelling of a towed gun to the opening of fire by the gun is no more than 2 minutes.
Afterword
They show television footage from Chechnya.
Riot policemen storm the edge of the village where militants are holed up, including a sniper. A fierce firefight continues for several hours. Close-ups show machine gunners firing clip after clip. It's a shame for the country. It is inappropriate for the soldiers of a great state to fight with “farts.” I would like to roll up the most seedy little fluff - a three-inch, or even better - a six-inch, and solve all the problems in no time. What's the matter? It’s not clear... References
1. Odintsov V.A. Regional wars: assault guns are needed / T and V. -2001. -No. 1-2
2. Odintsov V.A. We need assault guns // Military Parade.-2000. -No. 2.
3. Nikolaev A.I., Odintsov V.A. Regional conflicts require assault guns // Armament. Policy. Conversion. -2000. -№5(35)
4. Shirokorad A. B. Encyclopedia of domestic artillery. Minsk, Harvest, 2000
5. Shunkov V.N. Artillery. Minsk, Medley, 2001
6. Artimeria of the 20th century. Encyclopedia of Military Equipment. Publishing house ACT, M.-2001.
7. Vernidub I. I. On the front line of the rear. M.: TsNIINTIKPK, 1983.
8. Odintsov V. Return of shrapnel // TV. -1999. -No. 4.7.
Vladimir Kravchenko
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