Nuclear explosions in photographs
Since 1945, about 2 thousand nuclear tests have been carried out in the world and 2 nuclear attacks have been carried out.
The undoubted leader in the destructive release of atomic energy is the United States. The attention of photographers was not spared by the uncontrollable and terrifying process of an atomic explosion. We present to your attention a selection of photos from Peter Kuran’s book “How to Take a Photo of an Atomic Bomb.
1. This is exactly what the process of releasing a huge amount of radiant and thermal energy looks like during an atomic explosion in the air over the desert. Here you can still see military equipment, which in a moment will be destroyed by the shock wave, captured in the form of a crown surrounding the epicenter of the explosion. You can see how the shock wave was reflected from the earth's surface and is about to merge with the fireball.
2. Commissioned by the Department of Defense and the Nuclear Energy Commission, specialists from the Lookout Mountain Center (California) took thousands of photographs of nuclear explosions. Photographing an atomic explosion is extremely dangerous, so without special equipment. a suit is indispensable.
3. Tests of nuclear missiles in the Pacific Ocean from 1946 to 1962 not only showed their power in the fight against the navy, but also became a source of nuclear pollution of ocean waters.
4. Photographs of the initial stage of a nuclear explosion, when the speed of its propagation is close to the speed of light, can be considered a huge success. The image was taken by a camera with an incredibly fast shutter, which was placed 3.5 km from the epicenter of the explosion.
5. The glowing sphere of a nuclear explosion absorbs the tower with ammunition placed in it.
6. Another photo of the early stage of an atomic explosion, taken by a special camera located several kilometers from the epicenter.
7. To get good pictures, entire teams of photographers often work at test sites. Photo: nuclear test explosion in the Nevada desert. On the right are visible rocket plumes, with the help of which scientists determine the characteristics of the shock wave.
8. The explosion of an atomic bomb, whose power was approximately half the power of the Baby bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, lifted thousands of tons of water into the air and caused a whole series of destructive tsunamis.
9. At a test site in the Nevada desert, photographers from the Lookout Mountain Center in 1953 took a photograph of an unusual phenomenon (a ring of fire in a nuclear mushroom after the explosion of a shell from a nuclear cannon), the nature of which occupied the minds of scientists for a long time.
10. Specialists from the Lookout Mountain Center take a photo of an aircraft that is supposed to participate in nuclear tests (1957).
11. The huge aircraft was located 8 km from the epicenter of the nuclear explosion, but it failed to escape from the powerful blast wave.
12. Photographers from Lookout Mountain stand waist-deep in dust raised by the shock wave after a nuclear explosion (photo from 1953).
13. During the chain reaction, a sudden release of a huge amount of energy occurs, which causes an instant increase in the temperature of the explosive, reaching millions of degrees and being transmitted to the environment. The photo shows a school bus that will take part in nuclear tests.
14. After the explosion of a test atomic bomb, the paint on the bus foams.
15. And moments later, the paint begins to evaporate from the metal body of the bus.
16. But the bus is saved from complete combustion by a shock wave, which extinguishes the fire with lightning speed.
17. During the next explosion, all components of the school bus that can burn burn out...
18. ...and evaporate, leaving only a skeleton of the vehicle.
19. In addition to the enormous thermal radiation, a nuclear explosion releases powerful electromagnetic radiation in a wide spectrum, causing radioactive contamination of the area and everything on it.
20. Despite the deadly radiation, in 1951, various important people were invited to observe nuclear tests in Nevada, nuclear tourism was popular (people tried to get to the area where the nuclear mushroom was visible), and during the Desert Rock exercise, the command ordered infantrymen run right under the deadly mushroom.
21. A fireball captured on film, similar to the sun setting behind the horizon, is the result of a hydrogen bomb explosion in the Pacific Ocean (1956).
22. Photo of the ruins of a Catholic church on a deserted hill in the Japanese city of Nagasaki. This is what the city's landscape looked like after the explosion of the atomic bomb dropped by the United States at the end of World War II.
PhotoTelegraph
“I have become death, the destroyer of worlds,” said Robert Oppenheimer on the day of the first atomic bomb test, quoting lines from the Bhagavad Gita. In the center of the mushroom cloud, at the epicenter of the explosion, the air temperature reaches incredibly high values. Hot air quickly rises, carrying smoke and debris from surrounding areas. Due to higher temperatures, the air in the center rises faster, thus giving the cloud a mushroom-like shape. A person cannot look at a nuclear explosion for the same reason that he cannot look at the sun. The instantaneous flash of a nuclear explosion is much brighter than the sun for a tiny fraction of a second, causing overload of the optic nerves. (34 photos)
discuss photo (1)
Testing "Licorn" in French Polynesia. Image #1. (Pierre J./French Army)
discuss photo (0)
Testing "Licorn" in French Polynesia. Image #2. (Photo: Pierre J./French Army)
discuss photo (0)
Testing "Licorn" in French Polynesia. Image #3. (Photo: Pierre J./French Army)
discuss photo (0)
Testing "Licorn" in French Polynesia. Image #4. (Photo: Pierre J./French Army)
discuss photo (0)
Project Castle, Romeo Test. Date: March 26, 1954; project: Castle; place: Bikini Atoll; test type: barge explosion; power: 11 mt; charge type: atomic. Initially, the Romeo test was planned to be the 6th test. But the incredible success in the Bravo test made some adjustments to the operation schedule, as a result of which Romeo was moved to second position. The Romeo test used the Runt I thermonuclear device, which was a larger version of the device used in the Bravo test. Its length was 5.71 m and its diameter was 1.56 m versus 4.56 × 1.37 for the Bravo test device. The difference was in the thermonuclear fuel. Runt I used inexpensive natural (7.5% Li6) lithium. The calculated explosion power was 4 mt, permissible limits varied from 1.5 mt to 7 mt. This suggests that no one knew how the device would ultimately behave. Roughly speaking, this experiment was conducted to determine whether cheap thermonuclear fuel would work effectively. After the Bravo test, the estimated power was increased almost 2 times: from 8 mt to 15 mt. The actual power of the explosion was 11 mt, which was almost 3 times higher than the original calculated power of the explosion. Romeo was the first test to be carried out on a barge. This method of conducting the test was due to the fact that a powerful explosion could completely destroy the island. (Photo: US Department of Energy/National Nuclear Security Administration – Nevada Site Office)
discuss photo (0)
Project Dominic, Aztec test. The Aztec test was carried out on April 27, 1962 on Christmas Island. As part of the test, a nuclear bomb with a yield of 410 kt was detonated.
discuss photo (0)
Project Ranger, 1951. Test name unknown. (Photo: National Nuclear Security Administration/Nevada Site Office)
discuss photo (0)
Trinity Test. "Trinity" was the code name for the first nuclear weapons test. This test was conducted by the United States Army on July 16, 1945, at a site located approximately 56 km southeast of Socorro, New Mexico, at the White Sands Missile Range. The test used an implosion-type plutonium bomb, nicknamed “The Thing.” After detonation, an explosion occurred with a power equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The date of this test is considered the beginning of the atomic era. (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project Castle, Test Bravo. "Castle Bravo" was the code name for the first test of a hydrogen bomb using "dry" thermonuclear fuel. The first test of Project Castle was conducted on March 1, 1954 at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. "Castle Bravo" was the most powerful nuclear charge (its power was 15 mt.). The actual power of the explosion far exceeded the calculated one, which was determined to be 4-6 megatons. Combined with other factors, the consequences of the explosion led to the worst radioactive contamination ever caused by the United States. The radioactive fallout caused serious harm to the health of the island's residents, who returned to their previous place of residence, and the crew of the fishing vessel "Daigo Fukuryu Maru", which caused concern among the world community and massive checks on the level of radiation in the fallout. (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project Dominic, Chama test. Power: 1.59 mt; location: Johnston Island; date: October 18, 1962
discuss photo (0)
A mushroom cloud formed as a result of the atomic explosion of the Truckee test conducted as part of Project Dominic.
discuss photo (0)
Project Buster, Test Dog.
discuss photo (0)
Project Buster, Test Dog.
discuss photo (0)
"Fizo".
discuss photo (0)
Project Upshot Knothole, Annie Test. The test took place on March 17, 1953. (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project "Crossroads", test "Baker". Test: Baker; date: July 24, 1946; project: Crossroads; location: Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands; test type: underwater, depth – 27.5 m; power: 23 kt; charge type: atomic. This test was the second atomic explosion as part of the Crossroads project and the 5th nuclear explosion in human history. The bomb was enclosed in a waterproof casing and attached to the bottom of the LSM-60 landing ship, which was installed in the center of the experimental flotilla, numbering 71 vessels. The aircraft carrier Stratoga occupied the closest position to the atomic bomb. For research purposes, many laboratory animals, plants and even biological agents were placed on board the ships participating in the experiment. Eight ships were sunk and capsized: Stratoga, Arkansas, submarines Apogon and Pilotfish, Nagato, LSM-60, dry dock ARDC-13 and tanker YO-160. Another 8 ships were seriously damaged. The explosion lifted several million tons of water into the air, forming a water column 600 meters high, with walls 100 meters thick. The blast wave generated waves of enormous height in the ocean. The stern of the aircraft carrier "Stratoga" rose on the crest of the first wave to a height of 13.5 meters above the water surface. The entire area of the lagoon was contaminated with radiation. During the first 24 hours after the explosion, radiation levels were lethal, and remained extremely dangerous for the next 7 days. (Photo: US Navy/Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project "Hardtrack 1", test "Oak". Test: Oak; date: June 28, 1958; project: Hardtrack I; location: Enewetak Atoll lagoon; test type: barge explosion, 2.58 m above surface; power: 8.9 mt; charge type: atomic. During the Oak test, a prototype of the TX-46 atomic bomb, which was developed at Los Alamos, was tested. The explosion of the Oak test ranks 6th on the list of the most powerful nuclear explosions produced by the United States.
discuss photo (0)
Project "Hardtrack 1", test "Oak". (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project Ivy, Mike Challenge. Test: Mike; date: October 31, 1952; project: Ivy; place: Elugelab Island, Enewetak Atoll; test type: ground; power: 10.400 mt; charge type: atomic. The bomb, nicknamed "Sausage", was the first so-called "clean" thermonuclear bomb. Its dimensions were 2 m wide and 6.2 m long, and its weight was approximately 80 tons. The power of the bomb explosion was 10.4 mt, and the diameter of the plasma ball reached 4.8 km. The cloud formed as a result of the explosion was incredibly huge: 40.5 km in height and 96 km in diameter. The explosion completely destroyed the island of Elugelab. At the site of the explosion, an explosion crater with a diameter of 1.5 km and a depth of 53 m was formed. After this test, high levels of radiation spread throughout the Enewetak Atoll. It was the 4th most powerful explosion ever carried out by the United States (at that time it was the most powerful). Its power was equal to the power of all the combined bombs dropped by the Allied forces during the entire period of World War II. (Photo: National Nuclear Security Administration/Nevada Site Office)
discuss photo (0)
Project Upshot Knothole, Rake test. This test involved an explosion of a 15 kiloton atomic bomb launched by a 280mm atomic cannon. The test took place on May 25, 1953 at the Nevada Test Site. (Photo: National Nuclear Security Administration/Nevada Site Office)
discuss photo (0)
"George". (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project Plumbbob, Priscilla Challenge.
discuss photo (0)
Models of nuclear bombs “Baby” and “Fat Man”. (Photo: Atomic Archive)
discuss photo (0)
Project Castle, Romeo Test. (Photo: zvis.com)
discuss photo (0)
Project Hardtack, Umbrella Test. Challenge: Umbrella; date: June 8, 1958; project: Hardtack I; location: Enewetak Atoll lagoon; test type: underwater, depth 45 m; power: 8kt; charge type: atomic.
discuss photo (0)
Project Hardtack, Umbrella Test.
discuss photo (0)
Project Redwing, Test Seminole. (Photo: Nuclear Weapons Archive)
discuss photo (0)
Project Dominic, Yeso test. Test: Yeso; date: June 10, 1962; project: Dominic; location: 32 km south of Christmas Island; test type: B-52, atmospheric, height – 2.5 m; power: 3.0 mt; charge type: atomic. (Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Project Dominic, Yeso test.
discuss photo (0)
Project Upshot Knothole, Annie Test. Date: March 17, 1953; project: Upshot Knothole; challenge: Annie; Location: Knothole, Nevada Test Site, Sector 4; power: 16 kt. (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Riya test. Atmospheric test of an atomic bomb in French Polynesia in August 1971. As part of this test, which took place on August 14, 1971, a thermonuclear warhead codenamed "Riya" with a yield of 1000 kt was detonated. The explosion occurred on the territory of Mururoa Atoll. This photo was taken from a distance of 60 km from the zero mark. Photo: Pierre J.
discuss photo (0)
A mushroom cloud from a nuclear explosion over Hiroshima (left) and Nagasaki (right). During the final stages of World War II, the United States launched two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The first explosion occurred on August 6, 1945, and the second on August 9, 1945. This was the only time nuclear weapons were used for military purposes. According to the orders of US President Harry S. Truman, on August 6, 1945, the US Army dropped the "Little Man" nuclear bomb on Hiroshima, followed by the nuclear explosion of the "Fat Man" bomb on Nagasaki on August 9. Within 2-4 months after the nuclear explosions, between 90,000 and 166,000 people died in Hiroshima, and between 60,000 and 80,000 in Nagasaki. (Photo: Wikicommons)
discuss photo (0)
Upshot Knothole Project. Test site in Nevada, March 17, 1953. The blast wave completely destroyed Structure No. 1, located at a distance of 1.05 km from the zero level. The time difference between the first and second shot is 21/3 seconds. The camera was placed in a protective case with a wall thickness of 5 cm. The only light source in this case was a nuclear flash. (Photo: National Nuclear Security Administration/Nevada Site Office)
discuss photo (0)
Monument to the first test of the Trinity atomic bomb. This monument was erected on the White Sands test site in 1965, 20 years after the Trinity test. The monument's plaque reads: "The world's first atomic bomb test took place at this site on July 16, 1945." Another plaque below commemorates the site's designation as a National Historic Landmark. (Photo: Wikicommons)
# atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs, USA, nuclear explosions, nuclear tests
Is Sedan Crater dangerous today?
The Nevada Test Site at Sedan Crater currently offers group tours that are in high demand. More than 10,000 people visit this place every year. An observation deck is installed near the crater itself, allowing you to view the local landmark in all details.
Visiting rules are strict. It is prohibited to bring photo and video equipment, binoculars, phones and other equipment. It is not allowed to take any souvenirs from the training ground area. Even a lifted stone from the ground can cause a tourist to be turned away. The zone is strictly guarded by the military and this place is closed from public access.
At the end of the 60s, similar experiments with peaceful atoms were carried out in the USSR. They continued much longer than in the USA, until the end of the 80s. The Soviet government was not deterred by the Americans' unsuccessful experience with the Sedan crater in 1962. Therefore, within a year, the Chagan Atomic Lake appeared on the territory of Kazakhstan. But this is a completely different story, which you can read about in our previous article.
If you are interested in science and technology news, subscribe to our channel in Yandex.Zen. There you will find exclusive materials that were not published on the site!
The most powerful weapon of mass destruction
The most powerful intercontinental ballistic missile is the Russian SS-18 Model 5, officially called the RS-20, equipped with 10 individually targetable warheads of 750 Kt each. Another model has one warhead with a yield of 20 Mt. During the Cold War, the RS-20 was the most dangerous missile in the arsenal of the Warsaw Pact countries. Each warhead had a hit accuracy within 250 meters.
Last use of nerve gas
On March 20, 1995, in Tokyo, Japan, members of the Aum Shinrikyo sect released sarin, a deadly nerve gas, into the subway. 11 people died and more than 5,500 were poisoned.
Largest stockpile of chemical weapons
According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Russia has the largest stockpiles of chemical weapons. Its total weight is about 40,000 tons. The United States is in second place with a total stock of 25,000 tons.
The most powerful nuclear explosion
The most powerful thermonuclear device is the Tsar Bomba. Equivalent to approximately 57 megatons of TNT, it was dropped from an altitude of 10,500 meters by parachute system on a simulated target within a nuclear test site on the remote Arctic island of Novaya Zemlya. The bomb was detonated on October 30, 1961 at 8:33 GMT. The shock wave circled the Earth three times, with the first wave lasting 36 hours and 27 minutes. The nuclear mushroom of the explosion rose to a height of 67 kilometers, and the diameter of its cap reached 95 kilometers.
Largest number of anthrax victims
The greatest number of deaths was caused by the anthrax epidemic that broke out in Sverdlovsk (USSR; now Yekaterinburg, Russia) in April 1979. At least 68 people died after inhaling the infection. The source of the epidemic has not been established.
Highest nuclear explosion
The 1.7 kiloton nuclear device was detonated 749 km (466 miles) above the Earth's surface on September 6, 1958, as one of a series of tests conducted by the United States under the secret Operation Argus. The 98.9 kg W-25 warhead was launched from a three-stage Lockheed X-17A gun from the USS Norton Sound, which was located in the South Atlantic Ocean 1,770 km southwest of Cape Town (South Africa).
The most powerful nerve gas
The nerve gas VX, or O-ethyl-S-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylthiophosphonate, was developed at the Chemical Defense Experimental Establishment (Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK) in 1952. It is almost 300 times stronger than phosgene, which was used during the First World War. A dose of gas equal to 1/8 of a raindrop is enough to kill a person. In the 1950s, the United States tried to buy the method of producing this gas from Britain in exchange for thermonuclear weapons technology. The largest number of simultaneous nuclear explosions On October 24, 1990, at least 8 (possibly 9) nuclear charges were simultaneously detonated at the Russian Novaya Zemlya test site.
Longest running environmental campaign
Greenpeace has opposed nuclear testing since its formation in 1971. The first action was directed against explosions off the coast of Alaska (USA). Greenpeace continues to carry out international actions against nuclear weapons.
The smallest nuclear bomb
The W54 atomic bomb, which was produced from 1961 to 1971 in the United States and Europe, is the smallest nuclear weapon ever produced. Its range of action was 4 km, weight - 34.47 kg. The diameter of the bomb at its widest point was only 27 cm.
Largest number of victims of nuclear bombing
On August 6, 1945, an American nuclear bomb exploded in Hiroshima, Japan, killing 155,200 people. This number includes those who died from radiation sickness within a year after the bombing. The bomb exploded at an altitude of 509 meters above the city. The explosion completely devastated 10 km2 of Hiroshima. More than 65% of city structures were destroyed.
First nuclear bombing
The first nuclear bomb was dropped by the United States on Hiroshima (Japan) on August 6, 1945 at 8:16 am. The power of the explosion was 15 kt of TNT equivalent. Three weeks before this bombing, the first nuclear test was carried out in New Mexico (USA). The bomb, codenamed "Baby", was 3 meters long and weighed 4082 kg.
The largest non-nuclear bomb
The BLU-82B/C-130 weapon system, nicknamed the "Daisy Cutter", contains a warhead with 5,715 kg of explosive. The radius of the bomb is 91-274 meters. It was used in Afghanistan in 2001.
First use of smallpox as a weapon
The first documented use of the smallpox virus as a biological weapon occurred during the war of 1754-1763. between the French and Indians (North America). British soldiers who fought simultaneously against the French colonialists and the Native Americans gave blankets to the Indians that were used by smallpox patients. The ensuing epidemic claimed the lives of more than 50% of the infected tribes.
The most powerful nuclear explosion in space
On July 9, 1962, a nuclear explosion with a yield of 1.45 Mt was carried out at an altitude of 399 km above Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean. The 755 kg warhead, codenamed "Starfish Prime", was launched by the US Air Force using a Thor missile. The explosion occurred at the altitude at which orbiting spacecraft are located. The power of the explosion was 100 times greater than the power of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima.
First use of biological weapons
In the 6th century BC, the Assyrians, who lived on the territory of modern Iraq, poisoned the water in the wells of their enemies with rye ergot. The poisoning caused attacks of paranoid schizophrenia, and many of the victims died.
Largest supply of smallpox vaccine
The United States has the world's largest supply of vaccine to fight the deadly smallpox virus. There are currently 15.4 million doses available, and by the end of 2002 the number will reach 286 million, enough to supply all Americans. This is how the United States is preparing for possible terrorist attacks.
The largest crater from a nuclear explosion
On January 15, 1965, at a test site near Semipalatinsk, at a depth of 178 meters under the dry bed of the Chagan River, a nuclear bomb with a yield of 104 kt was detonated. The explosion created a crater 408 meters wide and 100 meters deep. In this area it is called Lake Chagan.
The heaviest nuclear bomb
The heaviest nuclear bombs were the Mk.17, which were equipped with the American Convair B-36 Peacemaker long-range bombers in the mid-1950s. They weighed 19,050 kg and were 7.49 meters long. The maximum yield of these bombs is 20 Mt, 1000 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima (Japan) during World War II.
Worst nuclear submarine accident
The worst nuclear submarine accident occurred on October 6, 1986, when the Soviet submarine K-219 (Project 667-A) sank in the Atlantic Ocean 965 km north of Bermuda. The submarine is currently located on the ocean floor at a depth of 5,800 meters; it has 2 nuclear reactors and 16 nuclear missiles.
The most powerful weapon without casualties
The BLU-114/B graphite bomb used by NATO during the Serbian operation in May 1999 knocked out 70% of Serbia's power grid with minimal casualties. The bomb ejects ultra-thin carbon fiber conductors, causing short circuits in electrical installations.
The Birth of Nuclear Weapons
Back in 1939, the Frenchman Joliot-Curie realized that exposure to uranium nuclei under certain conditions could lead to an explosive reaction of enormous power. As a result of a nuclear chain reaction, spontaneous exponential fission of uranium nuclei begins and a huge amount of energy is released. In an instant, the radioactive substance exploded, and the resulting explosion had a huge damaging effect. As a result of the experiments, it became clear that uranium (U235) can be converted from a chemical element into a powerful explosive.
For peaceful purposes, when a nuclear reactor is operating, the process of nuclear fission of radioactive components is calm and controlled. In a nuclear explosion, the main difference is that a colossal amount of energy is released instantly and this continues until the supply of radioactive explosives runs out. The first time a person learned about the combat capabilities of the new explosive was on July 16, 1945. While the final meeting of the Heads of State of the victors of the war with Germany was taking place in Potsdam, the first test of an atomic warhead took place at the Alamogordo test site in New Mexico. The parameters of the first nuclear explosion were quite modest. The power of the atomic charge in TNT equivalent was equal to the mass of trinitrotoluene of 21 kilotons, but the force of the explosion and its impact on surrounding objects made an indelible impression on everyone who observed the tests.
This is interesting: Hydrocline. Definition.
Nuclear fears, imaginary and real. Part 1
Reading comments on Military Review on military equipment, the history of wars and armed conflicts, international relations and especially the issue of nuclear deterrence, I never cease to be amazed at how polarizing the views and opinions of different groups of site visitors are. Having analyzed various statements, we can identify two large groups with diametrically opposed views. One bright group, let’s call it “We’ll tear everyone apart,” distinguished by extreme belligerence and “jingoism”—bordering on chauvinism—calls for an extremely tough policy towards the United States and its allies. According to the adherents of “We’ll tear everyone apart,” we are “stronger than ever,” and our country has enough power to single-handedly resist all enemies and potential rivals who can eventually become enemies. In the comments of representatives of this group, you can often read that “if a fight is inevitable, then you must strike first” and, regardless of your own losses, use all available types of weapons, including nuclear (thermonuclear). However, such judgments, as a rule, are expressed by people who are not burdened with life experience, special knowledge and family, who have not served in the armed forces, and, as they say, who have not experienced “hardships and hardships.” However, there are exceptions; the author of these lines not long ago had the opportunity to communicate with a man in his fifties who professed similar views. This “young” man, who works as a low-level manager in one of the government agencies, having taken a certain amount of alcohol “on his chest,” literally shocked me with such reasoning. During the conversation, I got the impression that the reason for such statements was unsatisfied ambitions and unsettled personal life.
The other extreme group is the "Everybody's Kicked" (in case of nuclear war). This group sincerely believes that any use of nuclear weapons will end in a general apocalypse, and therefore this means of armed struggle must be immediately eliminated. At the same time, supporters of this point of view use terms such as “nuclear winter”, “universal radiation contamination”, “death of all living things”. Such opinions are most often demonstrated by mature people, whose formation as individuals took place back in the USSR; they are raising children or already have grandchildren, but, as a rule, are not very well educated. I must say that this point of view is much closer to me; I myself am the father of three children and, naturally, I wanted their childhood to be peaceful.
But a number of myths and horror stories fueled by the media are associated with nuclear weapons, which, let’s say, do not quite correspond to reality, which we will try to figure out today. To better understand the characteristics of nuclear weapons and their role in human history, it is worth starting with the prerequisites for their creation and the very moment of their appearance.
In 1939, German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered the process of fission of uranium nuclei when irradiated with neutrons. This discovery, in fact, served as the starting point for work on the creation of an atomic bomb and nuclear power reactors. During the fission process of the nucleus of a uranium atom, two (less often three) nuclei with similar masses are formed - the so-called fission fragments. As a result of fission, other reaction products are also formed: light nuclei (mainly alpha particles), neutrons and gamma rays. Fission can be spontaneous or forced (as a result of the influence of other particles, primarily neutrons). The decay of heavy element nuclei serves as a source of energy in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. Under certain conditions, a fission reaction can be a chain reaction - this means that during the reaction the amount of energy released is greater than that absorbed, and other nuclei enter into the fission reaction. The fission of the nucleus of a heavy element under the influence of a neutron into two rapidly flying fragments is accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy, the emission of gamma radiation and neutrons - on average 2.46 neutrons per decayed uranium nucleus and 3.0 per plutonium nucleus. As a result of the uncontrolled decay of nuclei, the number of neutrons increases sharply, and the fission reaction can instantly cover all nuclear fuel. This happens when a “critical mass” is reached, when a fission chain reaction begins, leading to an atomic explosion.
The use of the nuclear fission chain reaction made it possible to create nuclear reactors, which use a controlled chain reaction, and nuclear weapons (atomic bombs), which use an uncontrolled chain reaction. At the time of its creation, in 1945, the atomic bomb became the most destructive type of weapon that existed at that time, surpassing the energy release of the most powerful chemical explosive by many orders of magnitude.
Initially, while the number of atomic bombs was small in both mass and size, they were comparable to the heaviest high-explosive aerial bombs, nuclear weapons were considered in the United States as a “superweapon” for the destruction of particularly important targets and an instrument of “nuclear blackmail” of the Soviet Union. At first, the means of delivering atomic bombs were exclusively heavy bombers. However, as the number of nuclear charges grew and they were miniaturized, first in the USA and then in the USSR, nuclear weapons began to be viewed as battlefield weapons suitable for solving tactical problems. Tactical and operational-tactical mobile missile systems and “nuclear artillery” entered service with the Ground Forces, and relatively compact nuclear bombs were created for front-line aviation.
Since the mid-50s, anti-aircraft missiles and air combat missiles of interceptor fighters have been equipped with nuclear warheads, and the fleet has received nuclear sea mines, depth charges and torpedoes. Nuclear landmines were intended to create impenetrable zones of destruction along the enemy’s offensive path, and compact nuclear landmines in the form of backpacks were created for “special operations” units. The apogee of “nuclear insanity” was reached in the United States after the creation of 120-mm and 155-mm nuclear recoilless rifles “Devi Crocket” with a firing range of 2-4 km. The Dewi Crocket recoilless rifles entered service with American infantry divisions in Europe in the early 60s. With their help it was supposed to repel attacks by Soviet tanks. In the Soviet Union, in the late 60s - the first half of the 70s, work was carried out to create a tactical missile system for tank regiments "Taran" with a large-caliber radio-controlled ATGM, equipped with a nuclear warhead, with a design launch range of 6-8 km.
The greatest concentration of tactical nuclear weapons was in Western Europe. The saturation of the American armed forces with nuclear warheads continued until the mid-60s. After which the number of American tactical charges began to decline. This was due to the decommissioning of obsolete OTR and the abandonment of numerous Nike-Hercules and Bomark anti-aircraft systems with nuclear warheads, which were on combat duty in the United States and Canada. These expensive anti-aircraft systems turned out to be practically useless after ICBMs began to form the basis of the USSR strategic nuclear forces. In the Soviet Union, on the contrary, after achieving parity with the United States in terms of strategic delivery vehicles in the 70s, the number of nuclear warheads was increased until the end of the 80s.
Number of nuclear weapons in the USA and USSR/Russia
If for tactical nuclear weapons there was a process of miniaturization of nuclear charges, and simultaneously with an increase in firing accuracy, a decrease in power occurred, which was supposed to reduce the side effect for friendly troops, then on strategic carriers until the early 70s, on the contrary, the power of warheads was increasing. The appearance in the 50s of thermonuclear weapons, the destructive power of which is based on the use of the energy of the nuclear fusion reaction of light elements into heavier ones (for example, the synthesis of one nucleus of a helium atom from two nuclei of deuterium atoms), made it possible to create warheads for MRBMs, ICBMs and aircraft bombs megaton class. A hydrogen bomb has the same damaging effects as an atomic one, but a thermonuclear charge can have a much greater possible explosion power (theoretically, it is limited only by the amount of “thermonuclear fuel” available). However, in practice, the increase in power had its limits, primarily due to restrictions on the mass and dimensions of the warhead, as well as the fact that in order to double the damage radius it is necessary to increase the energy release by eight times, which, of course, is not very rational .
The desire to increase the power of strategic nuclear warheads was largely due to the low accuracy of the first ballistic missiles, suitable for destroying only large area targets. With the improvement of guidance systems, reliability and miniaturization of warheads, ICBMs and SLBMs began to be equipped with several warheads with individual guidance (up to 10). From a military point of view, it is more advantageous to place several compact warheads with individual guidance with a power of 100-500 kt on one missile than a single warhead with a power of tens of megatons.
Remembering the course “Radiation, chemical and biological protection”, I would like to remind readers about the main damaging factors of a nuclear (thermonuclear explosion). In a ground-based (low-altitude air) nuclear explosion, the greatest destruction is caused by the shock wave (about 50%), the next most dangerous damaging factor is light radiation (30-40%), approximately 10-15% of the total number of those affected may be from radioactive contamination of the area ( including from induced radiation) and 5% comes from penetrating radiation and electromagnetic pulse (EMP).
As a result of an atmospheric nuclear explosion, an almost instantaneous increase in temperature, pressure and air density occurs, which begins to expand at supersonic speed. The shock wave front is capable of destroying buildings, structures and hitting unsheltered people. In the immediate vicinity of the epicenter of a ground or very low air explosion, powerful vibrations occur that can destroy or damage underground shelters and structures. The energy of the shock wave is distributed over the entire distance traveled, because of this the force of the shock wave decreases in proportion to the cube of the distance from the epicenter. Shelters and various types of shelters serve as protection from the shock wave. In open areas, the effect of the shock wave is reduced by folds in the terrain, obstacles and depressions.
The source of light radiation during a nuclear explosion is the luminous area of the explosion - parts of the warhead heated to high temperatures and evaporated and the environment. The maximum temperature on the surface of the luminous sphere can reach 8000 °C. The duration of the glow after the explosion lasts from a fraction of a second to several seconds, depending on the power and conditions of the explosion. Contrary to a common misconception among ordinary people, it is the expanding “fireball” that arose in the first moments after the explosion, and not the “mushroom” that formed later, that causes the greatest destruction. During a low-altitude explosion, as a result of which the maximum destructive effect is achieved on the surrounding area, the “fire sphere”, as a rule, is thrown upward by the shock wave reflected from the ground. You can hide from light radiation behind any opaque barrier, preferably made of non-flammable material. The impact of light radiation is significantly reduced during precipitation, fog or heavy dust in the air.
The photo shows the “fireball” of a nuclear explosion reflected from the surface of the earth
As a result of a nuclear (thermonuclear) reaction, hard ionizing radiation (gamma radiation and neutron flux) is formed. Due to the fact that penetrating radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, the range of damage from ionizing radiation during atmospheric explosions is significantly less than the damage zone from light radiation and shock waves. Even when using high-power charges, penetrating radiation only affects people at a distance of 1-3 km from the explosion site. However, special types of nuclear charges with an increased output of penetrating radiation are known, specifically designed to destroy manpower. At high altitudes, where the atmosphere is very rarefied, and in space, penetrating radiation and electromagnetic pulse are the main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. In addition to the ability to cause radiation damage to manpower, penetrating radiation can create irreversible changes in materials, disabling electronic and optical devices due to disruption of the crystal lattice of the substance and other physical and chemical processes under the influence of ionizing radiation. It is worth mentioning a type of thermonuclear weapon in which penetrating radiation is the main damaging factor - this is the so-called “neutron bomb”. As a result of the explosion of such a charge, up to 80% of the energy is converted into a flux of fast neutrons, and only 20% comes from other damaging factors. When passing through various materials, fast neutrons lead to the formation of induced radiation. In the area, induced radioactivity can pose a danger to human health from several hours to several days. As a rule, these are tactical charges of relatively low power or, conversely, megaton class anti-missile warheads. In the first case, tactical neutron charges are supposed to be used against enemy armored vehicles, since armor does not retain fast neutrons well. In space, the range of neutrons is practically unlimited, and at a distance of several kilometers from the explosion of an anti-missile warhead, hard neutron radiation can neutralize the nuclear materials contained in the ICBM warhead and disable its electronic filling.
As a result of the fall out of a significant amount of radioactive substances from a cloud raised into the air, radioactive contamination of the area occurs. Radionuclides that form radioactive fallout arise as a result of the fission of “nuclear fuel”, are formed under the influence of hard neutron radiation on the ground, and the smallest part is the part of the nuclear charge that has not reacted. Radioactive isotopes gradually settle onto the area from a wind-blown cloud of a nuclear or thermonuclear explosion. Depending on the degree of radiation contamination, being in an area where radioactive fallout has fallen can pose various dangers.
There is an opinion that the degree of radiation contamination of the environment is directly proportional to the force of the explosion, but this is not so. The number of radioactive isotopes and their lifespan primarily depend on the design of the bomb, the materials used in it and the type of explosion. Theoretically justified is the possibility of creating a low-power, but very dirty nuclear charge of a special design, capable of polluting an area tens of times larger than with a “regular” nuclear explosion. Also, during an air and ground explosion of the same nuclear weapon, the degree of radiation contamination of the area will differ several times. It has been repeatedly demonstrated in atmospheric tests that the further the explosion is from the surface of the earth, the less radiation contamination of the area. As striking examples, we can cite the two most powerful tests of American and Soviet thermonuclear charges.
On March 1, 1954, the Castle Bravo thermonuclear charge with a capacity of 15 Mt was tested at Bikini Atoll. It was an experimental stationary device weighing about 10 tons, which used lithium-6 deuteride as its “fusion fuel.” As a result of the explosion, a huge amount of radionuclides was formed, the atoll itself and the surrounding area were subject to radioactive contamination. The zone of severe radiation contamination had the shape of an oval 100 km wide and more than 550 km long. It was necessary to carry out an emergency evacuation of American military personnel and civilians from nearby islands; some of them still received very high doses of radiation. Crews of fishing vessels fishing in this area received significant radiation doses, up to lethal ones. Castle Bravo was not only the most powerful, but also the dirtiest American test explosion. The reason for the large release of radiation was the fission reaction of the uranium shell that surrounded the thermonuclear charge; it worked as the third stage of the explosion. The use of elements made from uranium-238 in a thermonuclear charge, which fissions under the influence of fast neutrons and forms radioactive fragments, makes it possible to increase the total power of the explosion several times, but also significantly (5-10 times) increases the amount of radioactive fallout.
Another example is the test on October 30, 1961, when a test explosion of the thermonuclear bomb AN602 (RDS-202), also known as the “Tsar Bomb” or “Kuzkina Mother”, was carried out at the test site of the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. A bomb weighing more than 26,000 kg and 8,000 mm long was dropped from a specially modernized Tu-95V bomber, on which the bomb hatch doors were dismantled. Otherwise, it was simply impossible to hang the bomb under the plane. The power of the explosion in TNT equivalent was 58 Mt. Initially, the design power of the bomb was 100 Mt, but for safety reasons it was reduced. A hydrogen bomb dropped from an altitude of 10,500 meters exploded at the command of a barometric sensor at an altitude of about 4,000 meters. At the same time, a fiery sphere with a diameter of more than 4000 meters was formed. She was prevented from touching the surface of the earth by a powerful reflected shock wave, which threw the fiery sphere of the explosion away from the ground.
Despite the fact that, compared to Castle Bravo, the power of the Soviet test explosion was almost four times greater, the explosion of Kuzkina Mother on Novaya Zemlya turned out to be relatively “clean”, and the amount of radioactive substances formed was several times less. In this case, the main part of the products of the air explosion rose to a great height, where they disintegrated without ever reaching the surface of the earth. A few hours later, test participants arrived by helicopter at the point where the explosion occurred. The level of radiation in the area did not pose a great danger. In this case, the design features of the Soviet thermonuclear bomb affected, as well as the fact that the explosion occurred at a fairly large distance from the earth's surface.
During a nuclear explosion, a strong alternating electromagnetic field (electromagnetic pulse) is formed in air ionized by radiation and light. Although EMR does not have a particular effect on the human body, as a result of its impact, electronic equipment, communication lines and power lines can be damaged. Under the influence of an electromagnetic pulse, a voltage is induced in all unshielded conductors, and the longer the conductor, the higher it is. As a result, insulation breakdown occurs and electrical appliances connected to cable networks fail. In an explosion at an altitude of 100 km or more, when other damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are not important, it is possible to disrupt the operation and disable sensitive electrical equipment and radio receivers at considerable distances - up to several tens of kilometers from the epicenter of a powerful explosion, where other factors no longer bring destructive effect. Thus, it is possible to disable unprotected equipment in durable structures designed to withstand heavy loads from a nuclear explosion, for example, in buried command posts and ICBM silos. In addition, significant ionization of the atmosphere after the explosion interferes with the propagation of radio waves and the operation of the radar. EMP and atmospheric ionization generated during high-altitude explosions make it possible to use these effects to blind early warning radars and radars of missile defense systems.
The basis for peaceful coexistence during the Cold War was the concept of mutually assured destruction. That is, despite all, even the most acute, disagreements, the USA and the USSR did not cross a certain line, because they understood what this was fraught with. Neither side could achieve victory in a global nuclear war, and even launching a disarming preventive strike did not guarantee that the aggressor would survive a retaliatory strike. Full-fledged nuclear triads and early missile warning systems that had been formed by the 1970s made it possible to conduct retaliatory actions and deprived the enemy of the element of surprise. Even if 2/3 of the strategic arsenal of one of the countries was destroyed, the remaining ICBMs and SLBMs were enough to cause unacceptable damage to the enemy. Thus, according to American experts, a missile salvo from the strategic underwater missile carrier Project 667BRDM, armed with 16 R-29RM SLBMs, is capable of killing 6 million Americans; it seems that UGM-133A Trident II (D5) missiles from the American Ohio SSBN can no less losses. A nuclear explosion in a modern city would have catastrophic consequences and lead to a large number of casualties. The destruction of hazardous industries, fires and collapses will be additional aggravating factors that can increase the number of victims. People who have not received significant injuries directly from the explosion are likely to die trying to get out of the zone of complete destruction. The lack of medical care and organized rescue efforts will cause the death of many thousands of people who received injuries and burns.
To be continued…
Based on materials from: https://www.ivo.unn.ru/rhbz/ https://www.vokrugsveta.ru/vs/article/1107/
Nuclear strikes of the recent past
Today, the population is trained to fall into the state of a frightened herd at the mere mention of a “nuclear bomb,” not to mention the explosion itself or radioactive contamination. Various myths and hassles are also supported. For example, about the impossibility of using nuclear weapons in modern warfare - it seems like this suicide will not benefit anyone. And now, it seems impossible to us to plan massive nuclear strikes on our cities. And such plans are being worked on! Nuclear charges are already used in armed conflicts, and even against their own population (Destruction of the “Twin Towers”).
Morok, depicting the terrible impact of residual radiation after a nuclear explosion on all living things, suppresses the will to resist. And yet, it excludes from our perception the very traces of the use of these weapons. We think it's too scary to be real. And how can you not notice this? But this only affects ignorant people. But nuclear specialists live in a more ]]>]]>real world]]> ]]>. They, like the rest of us, do not feel radiation, but they know for sure where it comes from, how much there is in a particular place, and what it threatens. They seem to be more sighted people. Let us also acquire this “special vision” and look at the world more deeply. Moreover, to evaluate the interesting facts given below, minimal basic knowledge is required. Be patient for half a page, a few terms and units.
Radioactivity is the instability of the nuclei of some atoms, manifested in decay, accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation or radiation.
Types of radiation:
Alpha particles are relatively heavy, positively charged particles (helium nuclei).
Beta particles are simply electrons.
Gamma radiation (close to X-rays) has the same nature as visible light, but has a much greater penetrating power.
The effect of radiation on humans is called exposure. This is the transfer of radiation energy to the cells of the body. At high doses, radiation causes metabolic disorders, infectious complications, leukemia and malignant tumors, radiation infertility, radiation cataracts, radiation burns, radiation sickness.
As for genetic mutations , such have never been discovered. Even among the 78,000 children of those Japanese who survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, there was no increase in cases of hereditary diseases (the book “Life after Chernobyl” by Swedish scientists S. Kullander and B. Larson).
It should be remembered that much greater real damage to human health is caused by emissions from the chemical and steel industries, not to mention the fact that science does not yet know the mechanism of malignant degeneration of tissues from external influences.
The measure of radioactivity is activity. It is measured in Becquerels (Bq), which corresponds to 1 disintegration per second in a certain amount of substance - (Bq/kg) or (Bq/cubic m). Curie (Ci) measures the same thing. Only this is a huge value: 1 Ci = 37 billion Bq.
If a substance has some activity, then it emits ionizing radiation. The measure of the effect of this radiation on a substance is the exposure dose. The unit of measurement for exposure dose rate is mR/hour (milliRoentgen/hour). If a person was exposed to radiation of 0.150 mR/hour for 10 hours, then the actual dose of radiation he received would be 1,500 mR. There are also minor features and other units (1 rem = 0.01 Sievert (Sv); 1 Sv = 100 Roentgen), but this will be enough to understand the basic processes.
Radiation is a very common property of matter. The sun is actually a giant hydrogen bomb. It emits not only photons in a wide range, but also a mass of ions, as well as gamma radiation. Astronauts know this well. The walls of a spaceship are unable to protect against the power of our star, even at such a distance. The force heating the Earth from the inside is also related to the nuclear decay of heavy transuranium elements.
So, radiation is everywhere .
14% comes from space (imagine how much very real radiation we received when the ozone layer was reduced by almost half in 2010); 37% from building materials and radioactive gases rising from the ground (radon); 19% of the radioactivity of the soil itself; 17% from our bodies and food, and 13% from medical procedures. We literally bathe in radiation from birth until death and emit it ourselves. Radiation is always there, the only question is its saturation.
In one city the dosimeter shows 0.015 mR, in another 0.150 mR. How much will he show in the city of Kurchatov, which is 60 km from the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site? And how dangerous is this for its inhabitants? Most often in these cases, we are talking about the natural, background level. That is, natural, normal for a given area. And there is already a forgery here. After all, “common for a given area” does not mean “natural”. The stench at the city dump is quite common and extremely constant, but what does nature have to do with it? This is the work of human hands. Unfortunately, there is every reason for the darkest suspicions.
Nuclear attack of the fifties
No one denies that in the period from 1949 to 1963, the territory of the USSR was damaged by the explosions of 209 nuclear weapons with a total yield of about 250 Mt (megatons). Why haven't you heard about this? Strange. But we inflicted this real blow on ourselves by conducting nuclear tests. However, other powers did the same - ]]>]]>Software visualization of all world nuclear tests]]> ]]> ]]>]]>]]> ]]>. It is difficult to judge whether this was justified under those conditions, but the main thing now is to quantify what happened. The power of the detonated charges corresponds to 16,600 bombs dropped on Hiroshima. England, perhaps, could inflict the same harm on our nature today by firing its entire nuclear arsenal of 160 warheads into Russia. With one condition - do not hit precisely, only into forests and fields, avoiding disruption of infrastructure and mass casualties. I wonder if we, as the people of Russia as a whole, would notice such an event? With appropriate media coverage, maybe not.
This seems incredible, but let's see how everything happened in reality. Our tests were concentrated at 2 test sites - Semipalatinsk and Novaya Zemlya. They got it about equally. The Semipalatinsk test site is indicative, because it is a more inhabited area. Barnaul is 500 km away, Pavlodar, Ekibastuz and Karaganda are 250 km away. The first nuclear charge was detonated there in 1949. By this time, 60 km from the test site, the city of Kurchatov had already been founded for 2 years. And in 1954, the city of Chagan was founded 80 km away.
Imagine - 60 km from the city, in just a few years, about a hundred atmospheric (not underground) nuclear and thermonuclear charges of varying power, from 1 kiloton to several megatons, were detonated with an average frequency of once a month. Considering the radius of curvature of the earth, a conventional observer in the city of Chagan can see everything that rises above the surface at the test site above 500 meters. But even an ultra-low charge of 1 kt generates a characteristic nuclear mushroom about 3 km . And 1 megaton of power gives a mushroom 19 km . Whether you experience this during the day or at night, you can still see it in all its glory in Chagan, and even more so in Kurchatov.
This is terrifying, but the raw numbers are not so scary . Ground-based nuclear explosions at the Semipalatinsk test site had a total power, very approximately, of the order of 100 Mt. Even if they were blown up in a short period of time, the zone of complete destruction would be only 8,500 sq. km. This is a square measuring 92 by 92 kilometers. The continuous fire zone is another square of 107 by 107 km (only in the desert there is nothing to burn). And all this is entirely within the testing area, and not at all across half the country. If we consider that the tests are spaced over several years, then in principle it is quite tolerable. It turns out that they are not such fanatics, these nuclear scientists, that they can live peacefully in the glorious city of Kurchatov.
There is only one BUT - radiation . After all, as we are told, it is the most terrible and harmful thing. An all-pervasive invisible enemy. In our case, with the simultaneous detonation of medium charges of the indicated total power, a square of territory measuring 240 by 240 km would receive a radiation blow with a lethal power of 30 Sv (Sievert). Even a person with a dose of 0.05 Sv is already considered irradiated. But the spacing of explosions over time also deprives this damaging factor.
As for radioactive isotopes , you must first understand where they come from. The nuclear device itself has some mass, contains uranium, plutonium, etc., but in small quantities (tens of kilograms). When an explosion occurs, all this turns into steam and is a carrier of isotopes. What evaporates without burning in a chain reaction subsequently constitutes radioactive contamination. In addition, part of the charge that reacted decays into lighter radioactive isotopes. This is also pollution. Finally, the outgoing gamma radiation, piercing the surrounding matter, bombards its atoms, and converts some of them into isotopes. This is induced radioactivity.
It should be noted that during airborne nuclear explosions (more than 30...50 m above the surface), most of the radioactive isotopes are released high into the atmosphere. They, of course, disperse and pollute, but over a vast space, sometimes distributed throughout the planet. Isotopes generally fall out of the stratosphere only after several years. Therefore, taking into account weather conditions, it is possible to work at the site relatively safely.
Another mitigating factor is the design of the thermonuclear charge. These are the ones that were predominantly tested. The release of isotopes there is significantly less in terms of power. And this is also done for war, since the enemy does not need dirty territory. In general, it seems realistic that as a result of the Semipalatinsk tests, isotopes were scattered over an area of at least 9 million sq. km. The total added radioactive background from the explosion is 100 Mt. in this area it can be 58.4 Curies per sq. km, which, in general, is not lethal. Moreover, in real life the scattering area could be many times larger.
For comparison, the release from the Chernobyl accident produced 10 times less total pollution, but its density was very heterogeneous. In the adjacent territory of several kilometers there is very high activity, and on the periphery of the zone, which reaches Bryansk and Penza, the indicators are low. The main difference is that in Chernobyl there was no powerful updraft, which forms a nuclear mushroom and carries isotopes into the upper atmosphere. Most of them settled in the immediate vicinity. Yes, and the Chernobyl accident scared everyone]]> ]]> not at all with the release of radiation, but with the threat of an explosion of a critical mass of fuel - a feeling of the end of all life on the planet.
In general, it is clear that the Kurchatov-Semipalatinsk nuclear scientists are not suicides at all, although they settled 60 km from the nuclear testing point. At the same time, we will have to admit that they realistically assess the nuclear threat, because they know more. And in our imagination we greatly exaggerate the damaging properties and consequences of the use of nuclear charges.
Impact of a nuclear strike on climate
But this does not mean that a gigantic portion of isotopes, heat and dust thrown into the upper atmosphere as a result of the explosion of 530 nuclear charges did not affect the climate and the “natural radioactive background.” Before these events, no one measured the background, and we have nothing to compare with. As part of his ]]>]]>first conference]]> ]]> Alexey Kungurov showed photographs of trees being cut. There, climate change in the 60s was clearly visible in the tree rings. The annual rings became thinner after this time. Annual growth has dropped significantly.
My parents, in particular, confirmed climate change during these years. They were teenagers then and lived in Chuvashia. According to them, until the 60s, winters were cold. Almost every December there were frosts of -25ºС for 2…3 weeks. The summer on the other hand was very hot. Accordingly, the annual growth of trees was large. They grow in the summer. After this, winters became warm, up to -15 ºС, and summers became cooler. Annual growth has decreased. This continued until the last ]]>]]>“climatic attractions”]]> ]]>.
And it’s necessary! Coincidentally, the maximum number of atmospheric nuclear tests were carried out precisely in the last few years before 1963. It was this year that the nuclear powers agreed to conduct tests only underground. Why did it happen? Apparently, they recorded real global climate changes and got scared . I think this is the most plausible explanation for the slowdown in annual tree growth since the 60s.
Wounds of our Earth
Now about the main thing, for the sake of which everything was started. Let's see with our own eyes how quickly the wounds of the earth inflicted by a nuclear strike heal.
At the beginning of the article you see Lake Chagan (in the area of the Semipalatinsk test site). It was created artificially in 1965 as a result of the explosion of a 170-kiloton thermonuclear charge placed in a well 178 meters deep in the bed of the small Chagan River.
As a result, we got what we wanted - a non-drying lake for watering livestock, 100 meters deep and 450 in diameter. The radioactive background remains high today, half a century later. This is understandable; this is what makes ground explosions different. All isotopes settle on soil particles and continue to emit.
The level of radiation around the lake (created mainly by the radioactive isotopes cobalt-60, cesium-137, europium-152 and europium-154) reaches (as of 2000) 2-3, in some places - up to 8 milliroentgen/hour (natural background - 0.015 -0.030 milliroentgen/hour). Radioactive contamination of lake water at the end of the 90s. was estimated at 300 picocuries/liter (the maximum permissible level of water contamination based on the total radioactivity of alpha particles is 15 picocuries/liter). Formally, these are serious consequences. BUT ! However, throughout all these years the lake has been used for watering livestock, that is, for its intended purpose! For 50 years, this has not led to noticeable damage to livestock and shepherds. Otherwise they wouldn't go there regularly.
Project "Taiga" 1971 Coordinates 61º18´20 N. and 56º35´56´´ E. It was a one-time underground explosion of three charges of 15 kilotons each in order to test the possibility of building the Pechora-Kama canal. The result was the appearance of a nuclear lake among the forest. In the final project it was planned to detonate about 280 such charges. The project was cancelled. Here you can see ]]>]]>photos of the crater and a video of the explosion.]]> ]]> According to official data, there was no serious contamination with radioactive materials. The dose rate of gamma radiation at the crest of the pile 15 years after the explosion was 0.060-0.600 milliroentgen per hour, above the surface of the water that filled the trench - up to 0.050 milliroentgen per hour. And in the pictures below you can see the modern look of this funnel. Already quite an ordinary lake.
Hiroshima. The picture shows a Japanese city after an aerial explosion of a 15 kt bomb at an altitude of about 500 meters.
And below is the same city, half a century later. As you can see, it is thriving. The tragedy remained only in the memory of the survivors. As soon as the generation changes, it will be possible to safely rewrite history and erase this fact. No one will miss...
Well, now the most interesting part
There are a large number of strange lakes on the territory of Russia. Many of them are perfectly round. Their origin is usually vague. Most often they are called karst lakes . This is a very convenient position, as it explains a hole in the ground of any shape and completely out of the blue. In addition, it is almost impossible to reliably establish this. This means that no one is going to prove it. That is, here we seem to have to take the scientists’ word for it.
But in general, karst is a cavity in the thickness of soluble rock, which was formed under the influence of water saturated with carbon dioxide. Such rocks are gypsum, limestone and some others. And if a round crater 2 km in size formed in the ground, it means that a similar cavity must have been washed underground for centuries. Surely such things have happened at some point, but not everywhere there is a suitable soil composition. And strange lakes exist in large numbers in completely different places, with clearly different soil compositions. That is, the karst hypothesis is unconvincing .
In addition, these strange lakes often have water levels significantly higher than the nearby rivers. And their names are completely unusual - Devil's Lake, Lake Shaitan, Lake Hell... Local residents always have different legends associated with these lakes. And all this speaks about one thing - such lakes are different from ordinary, dare I say it, natural ones.
Look at the wonderful “Dead Lake” just 20 km from Penza.
Absolutely round, diameter 450 m. There is an assumption on the Internet that this is the result of peat mining. The supposed peat miners apparently not only showed a developed sense of aesthetics, thanks to which they turned a banal quarry into a geometrically correct basin, but also carefully built a rampart around the entire lake. This embankment supposedly protected peat from being washed away, but in reality it is very similar to the release of soil from a nuclear explosion crater. Why nuclear? Judge for yourself, here is a crater from an ordinary explosion of comparable power.
But from nuclear.
Even with a ground-based nuclear explosion, the soil does not form such a characteristic cone. And with an explosion at a certain height, sometimes only indentation of the soil from the shock wave is observed. If the ammunition is detonated high enough, there may be no crater at all. There are intermediate options - elements of evaporation and ejection of part of the soil, elements of melting. The crater of a nuclear explosion does not have to be perfectly round, because the mass of the soil varies. Naturally, it will resist influences in different ways. But it still differs significantly from a funnel of a different origin. And, by the way, there are no bombs filled with conventional explosives and having such power that the explosion leaves a 450 m crater. As we remember, this will require 170,000 tons of TNT (the Chagan project). You can’t bring such a miracle on a Ruslan plane, and you can’t drag it.
From these positions many things are well explained. For example, compaction of soil by a shock wave may well form a waterproof lens, which holds water above normal levels. These are, in my opinion, ]]>]]>funnel lakes in the Kirov region]]> ]]> (to see, flip through the pages). The article at the link contains excellent photographs, the lakes themselves and the bottom topography are described in great detail. I personally have no doubt about their nuclear origin .
The fact that several lakes are connected underground does not at all destroy this version, and does not automatically make them karst. It is known that underground there is a developed network of underground passages. The passages themselves, underground cavities or exits to the surface could be targets. Moreover, in this case, the large depth of the funnel indicates the deepening of the charge. Today, if it is necessary to destroy underground objects, this is what they do. Falling from above at high speed, a heavy and durable nuclear weapon penetrates several meters into the soil and explodes there. This creates the necessary shock wave. The funnel turns out exactly the same.
There are a huge number of similar sinkholes filled with water, ranging in size from 100 m to several kilometers, across Russia. There is no way to list everything. Anyone can discover them themselves, without much difficulty. I would like to draw your attention only to Lake Chukhloma in the Kostroma region.
Its diameter is about 10 km, and the shape of the coastline is very suspicious. Although the dimensions are truly gigantic, they cannot be explained by the meteorite theory. In addition, in terms of dimensions it would be similar to an asteroid, no less. Again, there are no soil emissions characteristic of a mechanical collision of explosive-type solid bodies. This could only happen as a result of a powerful airborne nuclear explosion , probably more than 100 Mt. The epicenter was supposed to be located several kilometers above the surface. Under such conditions, the shock wave presses the soil tens of meters deep, but it is not ejected. These types of explosions are used to destroy ground objects and populations over a large area with a radius of about 1000...2000 km. Moreover, complete destruction is possible within a radius of 50...80 km, and further, with distance, the strength of the damaging factors decreases.
In light of all of the above, we can confidently say that on the territory of Russia (I’m not prying into other people’s business yet) there have been many explosions, nuclear or any other, with very similar damaging properties. Whether this happened in one day or over the course of centuries is not yet clear. Using Paganel's method, sitting in his office and looking at cards, this can hardly be found out. It is necessary to collect a lot of facts, soil samples from strange lakes, measurements of temporary soil slumps, make sections and check the composition and layering of embankments, traces of melting, in general, carry out the routine work that scientists so love to boast about, and for which we actually feed them. But for some reason no research is being carried out in this direction.
Until this moment, you can shout that nothing has been proven . That’s how it is, but there is a powerful hypothesis, and it has not been refuted. Anything, of course, happens, but the one who does nothing makes no mistakes. And I will still try to fit all these facts within certain boundaries.
When did it happen?
The described funnels appeared exactly more than 50 years ago. Otherwise nature would not have time to recover. If trees grow on the shores of a lake, then their age is the minimum statute of limitations for events . But the actual age of the lake may be much older. In the first years, the radioactive background in the area of the epicenter is high, but the main isotopes decay quite quickly. The activity of “Strontium 90” drops by 2 times in 29 years, “Cesium 137” in 30 years, “Cobalt 60” in 5 years, “Iodine 131” in 8 days.
In the first years after the events, a person who has visited the active zone, even if he has no idea about radiation, will definitely understand that the place is a disaster. He will feel it in his own skin. Health disorder is guaranteed. But after 60-70 years, only the terrible name of the lake, the peculiarity of vegetation and living creatures, and the stories of the very person who experienced everything will remain.
If we could at least somehow trust scientists and newspapers, then we could make the events ancient by another hundred years. But if you trust them, then you can put your eyes on the shelf as unnecessary. After all, then the described lakes simply cannot exist, just like the pyramids and much more. These sinkholes could not have appeared thousands of years ago. Many of them have retained their shape too well. No one has canceled atmospheric soil erosion, streams, ravines, etc. Offhand, I would very carefully set a preliminary lower limit for the recency of events at 500 years ago.
But we have other data that can be linked to funnels. These are the 500 million citizens of the Russian Empire who disappeared in the 19th century, this is a young forest no older than 150...200 years old, according to various estimates, and data on human diseases. Of course, you already realized that Alexey Kungurov has something to do with it. These are his funnels and 500 million people. He made, as they say, riddles at his two conferences, which means he destroyed stereotypes, and we are now forced to reconsider our worldview, to look for new points of support for consciousness. You have to try to keep your sanity somehow.
In general, both 500 million lost people and the endless forest fire of the 19th century fit into the overall picture of a nuclear strike . Who struck and why? I can't even think about it now. Let's leave it for the future, until it is fully understood. But there are still clues.
Two diseases of unknown origin that spread in the 19th century are consumption and cancer . Today, scientists have tortured enough experimental animals to know for sure that, at least, cancer occurs as a result of increased exposure to radiation. High levels of radioactivity throughout the world may be responsible for the increase in these diseases in the 19th century. And in the second half of the 20th century, another increase in cancer mortality was recorded. It is believed that from smoking. the radioactive background increased once again as a result of thousands of atmospheric nuclear explosions before 1963. This also fits into the concept of the 19th century, but the end of the 18th century cannot be ruled out.
The Planet's Unclear Radioactive Past
The failure of the radiocarbon method
Should we trust dubious historical dates? If we consider that radiocarbon dating, which is today the most advanced and most scientific method, is based on the half-life of the Carbon 14 isotope, which is formed in decent quantities as a result of nuclear explosions, then we can with scientific certainty recognize all radiocarbon dating as erroneous . In this case, the entire timeline, especially the ancient one, begins to float. It's not difficult to explain. Briefly, the method looks like this.
There is a lot of nitrogen in the atmosphere. If it is irradiated, it turns into the radioactive isotope "Carbon 14", with a half-life of 5730 years. Radiocarbon is absorbed from the atmosphere by living organisms through air and food only during life. But when the organism dies, the supply of new carbon atoms stops, and it can only decay, reducing its number by 2 times over 5370 years, 4 times over 10,740 years, etc. All that remains is to take a sample, incinerate it, weigh it and measure the radioactivity (as if there was nothing else to detect there). Then simple algebra allows us to obtain the age of the sample. To be fair, it should be noted that recently, in some cases, “accelerator mass spectrometry” has been used, which makes it possible to directly determine the radiocarbon content.
So, Willard Libby, the author of the method, back in 1946 decided to take the ratio of carbon isotopes in the atmosphere in time and space as a constant value. That is, always and everywhere the same. And on this inflated axiom . And all because there is supposedly nowhere for intense radiation to come from except from space. It was found that on average, about 7.5 kg of radiocarbon is formed in the Earth’s atmosphere per year, with a total amount of 75 tons. The formation of radiocarbon due to natural radioactivity on the Earth's surface is considered negligible.
However, it later turned out that only during atmospheric nuclear tests until 1963, another 500 kg was added to the existing amount of radiocarbon.
As a result, it was decided that the dates of the 20th century should be considered unreliable. What if nuclear fires had burned on earth before? ]]>]]>And they were blazing!]]> ]]> Even if you are hopelessly stupid and point-blank not noticing the nuclear crater lakes under your feet, then the melted layers of soil on the bottom of the ocean (Levashov N.V. “Russia in distorting mirrors-2"), and the Indian Mohenjo-Daro by a nuclear strike one really knows . A complete fiasco. The rating of the method is zero, the credibility of historical chronologies is zero. We are standing at the beginning of the path - ok again.
Conclusion
A kind of vacuum has formed. At N.V. Levashov’s “Russia in Distorting Mirrors” does not record any special events in the 19th century. But this book does not aim to provide a complete, thorough presentation of all historical events related to Russia. Probably, not everything can be said. It is pointless to look for this information in the Slavic-Aryan Vedas. Everything there is ancient. On the other hand, the facts are becoming more and more powerful. Something is wrong here . Something is completely wrong. The temptation is great to stick together a bunch of alternative versions of our past. But would it be better to replace one untruth with another? Therefore, everything described above represents only an in-depth look at some of the unraveling seams of the illusion . Only small reference points have been set, about which I have no doubts. But before we draw certain, unambiguous conclusions, we still have a long way to go in understanding the reality in which we live.
Alexey Artemiev, Izhevsk
]]>]]>Source]]>]]>
LO LoveOpium
Since Trinity, the first atomic bomb in human history in 1945, nearly 2,000 nuclear tests have been carried out, most of them in the 1960s and 1970s.
When the technology was still new, testing was frequent and revealing. But beginning in the 1990s, efforts were made to limit future nuclear weapons testing.
The photographs presented today are from the first 30 years of nuclear testing.
See also photographs of nuclear explosions.
32 photos
Part of the first Trinity atomic bomb, which was detonated at the test site on July 16, 1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Jumbo is a 200-ton steel tank designed to recover plutonium used in the Trinity atomic bomb test. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Growing fireball and shock wave from the Trinity bomb explosion: 0.025 seconds after explosion , July 16, 1945. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
The fireball continues to grow and the first nuclear mushroom mushroom in human history begins to form:
9 seconds after the Trinity explosion, July 16, 1945. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Photo 1. July 25, 1946. Baker test in the Bikini Atoll lagoon, underwater explosion at a depth of 28 meters. It was the fifth nuclear explosion in history, following two tests and two bombs dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Photo 2. Another photo of the Baker underwater test in the Bikini Atoll lagoon on July 25, 1946. (AP Photo):
Photo 3: Another photo of Baker's underwater test. The dark spots in the foreground are ships that were placed near the explosion site to test what an atomic bomb could do to huge ships. (AP Photo):
November 16, 1952, Enewetak Atoll. The atomic bomb was dropped by a B-36H bomber. Test yield: 500 kilotons. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Greenhouse test series consisting of 4 explosions in the Pacific Ocean. This photo is from the third test in May 1951. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Animation: destruction by a blast wave of a building located at a distance of 1 kilometer 67 meters from the epicenter of the atomic explosion on March 17, 1953. The time from the 1st to the last frame is 2.3 seconds. The chamber was placed in a lead shell, 5 centimeters thick, to protect against radiation. (Photo by US Department of Defense):
Photo 1. Before the explosion. During the Upshot-Knothole test, dummies were placed in a house at the dinner table to simulate the situation on March 15, 1953. (Photo by Dick Strobel | AP):
Photo 2. After the explosion. (US Department of Defense):
Photo 1. Before the explosion. The same house, but this mannequin is lying in the bed. As in the previous photographs, the effects of an atomic explosion are being tested at a test site near Las Vegas, Nevada, on March 15, 1953. Right through the window, 2.5 kilometers from the house, there is a 90-meter steel tower on which a bomb will be detonated. (Photo by Dick Strobel | AP):
Photo 2. After the explosion. (US Department of Defense):
Photo 1. Before the explosion. The same house, but mannequins are sitting in the living room. (AP Photo):
Photo 2. After the explosion. (US Department of Defense):
Testing Plumbbob at a test site in Nevada on August 30, 1957. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
The explosion of a hydrogen bomb during Operation Redwing over Bikini Atoll on May 20, 1956. (AP Photo):
The flash from the explosion of a nuclear warhead of an air-to-air missile, similar to the sun, July 19, 1957. 20 kilometers from this place. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
Priscilla test June 24, 1957. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
NATO observers watch with glasses the Plumbbob Boltzmann nuclear test on May 28, 1957. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
The tail section of an unmanned airship of the US Navy. In the background is a nuclear explosion at a test site in Nevada, August 7, 1957. The airship was flying 8 kilometers from the test site, but collapsed from the shock wave. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
Hardtack I - thermonuclear explosion in the Pacific Ocean in 1958. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
Arkansas test as part of Operation Dominic. This was a series of more than 100 nuclear tests in Nevada and the Pacific Ocean in 1962. (US Department of Defense):
Aztec test as part of Operation Dominic. This was a series of more than 100 nuclear tests in Nevada and the Pacific Ocean in 1962. (US Department of Defense):
Explosion as part of Operation Fishbowl Bluegill. A 400 kiloton nuclear bomb was detonated in the atmosphere 50 kilometers above the Pacific Ocean in October 1962. (US Department of Defense):
Yeso test as part of Operation Dominic, 1962. (US Department of Defense):
Crater from the explosion of a 100-kiloton bomb in the desert on July 6, 1962. 12 million tons of earth were . The crater measures 100 meters deep and 390 meters in diameter. (Photo by Nevada Site Office):
Photo 1. 1971. Nuclear explosion on Mururoa Atoll in French Polynesia. (AP Photo):
Photo 2. 1971. Nuclear explosion on Mururoa Atoll in French Polynesia. (AP Photo):
Upshot-Knothole Grable test conducted by the US military in Nevada on May 25, 1953. 280 nuclear shells were fired into the desert over a distance of 10 kilometers using the M65 Atomic Cannon. (US Department of Defense):
A house from Survival City, located 2,280 meters from a 29-kiloton nuclear explosion. It remained unchanged. The “survival city” consisted of houses, office buildings, power supply systems, and communications equipment. The name of the nuclear test, Apple II, was carried out on May 5, 1955. (US Department of Defense):
Tags: explosion, weapons, technology, nuclear explosions
