Black powder: Composition, types of gunpowder and testing method

Black powder

Coal is produced by burning non-resinous wood. The quality of the wood and the degree of burning of the coal determine the quality of the gunpowder. Coals are classified according to the degree of burning: black, brown and chocolate. The lower the degree of firing, the lower the rate of its burning, the worse the gunpowder. A more complete and uniform grinding of the components of black powder is of great importance.

Black powder comes in two grades: selected hunting powder and ordinary hunting powder . Depending on the grain size, each grade of gunpowder can be of four numbers:

Coarse (grain size 0.8 - 1.25 mm) - N№1
Medium (grain size 0.6 - 0.75mm) - N№2
Fine (grain size 0.4 - 0.6 mm) - N№3
The smallest (grain size 0.25 - 0.4 mm) - N№4
The specific gravity of the grain of gunpowder itself is 1.55 - 1.7 for ordinary, and for selected - 1.617-1.672.

Black hunting powder must have the following qualities:

The grains are well polished;
Grain color: black or slightly brown;
When the grain is carefully crushed, it does not turn completely into powder, but only breaks into pieces;
When examining parts of the grain through a magnifying glass of 5-10x magnification, no white coating of crystallized grains of saltpeter or yellowish crumbs of sulfur and other foreign impurities should be detected.

When pouring gunpowder, there should be no caked lumps or powder dust. Black powder is a relatively weak explosive: it is three times less powerful than smokeless powder. Black powder ignites easily when exposed to a flame or spark.

The combustion of large masses of it always turns into an explosion. The presence of a large amount of powder dust in gunpowder sometimes causes rupture of gun barrels, because Dust combustion occurs faster than grain combustion. When moistened, black powder grains are destroyed and lose their ability to ignite, because saltpeter is leached from them. Therefore, black powder itself and cartridges equipped with it should be carefully protected from moisture.

Black powder upon combustion produces 42 - 44% (by weight) of gaseous products, the remaining 56 - 58% are solid residues in the form of a cloud of smoke and soot in the barrel bore. When burned, black powder releases 700 - 770 calories, the combustion products are heated in a chamber that cannot be expanded to 2700 - 2800C. In the barrel of a hunting weapon the gas temperature is lower: 2200 - 2300C

When loading cartridges with black powder, it is necessary to use a “CB” primer - a centrifuge; the use of capsules “Zhevelo-powerful”, “KV-21”, “KV-22”, “Zhevelo-non-rusting” does not give tangible results in increasing the parameters of the shot. On the contrary, the use of primers designed to ignite smokeless powders leads (when using black powder) to a decrease in such a shot parameter as accuracy.

With a strong primer, black powder burns more intensely, which leads to a sharp increase in pressure at the initial moment of the shot, and this, in turn, causes increased deformation of the shot in the projectile. And as a result - a decrease in accuracy. This is especially important to remember for those hunters who use homemade shot made from “soft” lead, i.e. without antimony admixture.

When shooting with a bullet, especially in winter, it is better to equip the cartridge with a “Zhevelo” primer and the like. Based on experimental data, it is known that with normal charges of black powder, the shot flight speeds it develops are insufficient to reliably hit game at extreme distances (45 - 50 m)

Advantages of black powder:

The ability not to lose its properties during long-term storage. If gunpowder is protected from moisture penetration, it can be stored for decades.
Easy flammability even with a weak primer.
Weak response to changes in charge density and less sensitivity to the quality of wads, gaskets and sealing of the cartridge case (rolling) than smokeless powder.
Minor impact of gases on the metal of the barrels.
Low susceptibility to fluctuations in external temperature (frost, heat).

Disadvantages of black powder:

When exposed to moisture, it loses its quality forever.
It heavily contaminates the trunks with soot.
Gives a loud shot sound and strong recoil.
Gives a relatively low speed to the flight of the shot.
When fired, it produces a thick cloud of smoke, which makes it impossible to see the results of the shot (especially in damp and windless weather).
It complicates the process of loading plastic cartridges with large-caliber shot loads, because takes up a large volume in the sleeve.
Eliminates the use of cartridges filled with black powder in semi-automatic weapons (especially gas-operated weapons).

For heavy (over 3.3 kg) guns with long (75 cm or more) barrels, large grades of gunpowder are better suited. Shotguns with very short barrels (65 cm or less) require the finest powder (N№4). When zeroing a gun with black powder, you must first determine the size of the projectile, i.e. amount of fraction.

Satisfactory combat sharpness is obtained in cases where black powder is taken approximately six (6) times less by weight than shot, and excellent sharpness occurs when gunpowder is taken five (5) times less than shot. Within these limits we have to look for the size of the powder charge for 12 and 16 caliber guns.

Zeroing small calibers (20, 28, 32) differs from zeroing 12 and 16 gauge shotguns. The rule regarding the size of the shot charge remains in force for these guns. As for gunpowder, compared to shot, you have to put in much less of it than in large-caliber guns. This is explained by the fact that in tubes of small diameter, powder gases develop significantly higher pressures, as a result of which the required initial velocity of the shot, i.e. The sharpness of the battle is also achieved in cases where seven and even eight times more shot than gunpowder is used.

It should be noted that it is much more difficult to zero a gun with shot and generally achieve a decent fire when using black powder than when using smokeless powder. This is explained, first of all, by the fact that black powder produces much higher muzzle pressures than smokeless powder, and this leads to a deterioration in the uniformity and accuracy of the scree.

Answering the question why hunters used to prefer, especially in rural areas, black powder to smokeless gunpowder, we can say that there is nothing surprising in this. Black powder was cheaper than smokeless powder; moreover, it made it possible to load cartridges using brass cartridges and a “Centerbreaker” primer—again, a benefit in price.

In those distant times, there were almost no plastic sleeves, and paper sleeves could not be compared in durability with brass ones. Having bought 50 - 100 pcs. brass cartridges, the hunter solved the problem with cartridges for many years. Black powder is insensitive to the method of rolling the cartridge case; hunters could freely fix the shot wad in a brass case with stearin, paraffin, rosin, BF glue, etc., this did not affect the combustion mode of the black powder. The reloading of the cartridge (case) was simplified.

In a word, earlier black powder was more mastered by hunters; the transition to smokeless gunpowder required a certain time, a change in the habits of hunters, and an increase in their technical culture in equipping cartridges. Black powder does not require the use of a pharmacy scale; a measuring stick is sufficient.

The desire of hunters to use guns of 20, 28, 32 calibers when hunting is simply explained. Firstly, it provided hunters with weapons of less mass, which is very important in all popular hunts. Secondly, it required less shot and gunpowder when loading the cartridge, which again made the cartridge cheaper. Thirdly, carrying around a supply of ammo loaded with 12 gauge and 20 gauge brass cases makes a big difference.

Shooting with a 20-caliber bullet, with good marksmanship training of the hunter, allows you to kill many large animals. The use of 28 and 32 calibers on such hunts is most likely a necessity, not an expediency.

In conclusion, we can say that life itself put everything in its place, and if black gunpowder had been more promising than smokeless gunpowder, it would still be widespread. Everyone knows the difficult economic situation of hunters in rural areas, but this does not mean that black powder is more promising than smokeless powder. It is possible and necessary to release black powder, but only so that hunters have a choice.

Dmitry Kopaev November 30, 2013 at 00:00

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Petrinali.

The first hand-held firearms, which appeared in the 13th century in the East and in the second half of the 14th in Europe, were a faceted blank made of soft iron (or a round one made of copper or bronze) drilled from the inside. Such a weapon can be called a hand bombard, petrinal (Italian name), carbine (Arabic name), hand-held (Russian), culverina or samopal. I prefer the name "petrinal" since all the others are claimed by various other weapons. The trunk length was usually about 40-50 cm, with a channel diameter of 13-30 mm. Accordingly, the larger the caliber, the cheaper the petrinal turned out to be. Closer to the treasury, on the side, a pilot hole was drilled and a shelf for seed gunpowder was welded. From the mid-15th century, the regiment acquired a lid to prevent gunpowder from spilling out when carried and a butt borrowed from a crossbow. Before this, the butts of petrinals were very diverse and often of unexpected appearance - sometimes the petrinal was placed on the shoulder, like a bazooka. There were also options without a stock at all. The weight of this weapon ranged from 4 to 6 kilograms. The charge was ignited by a scorching candle—a wooden stick soaked in saltpeter. Small-caliber petrinals were loaded with a round lead bullet with a diameter 1.5 mm less than the diameter of the barrel. If the channel was wide, then a round pebble wrapped in a rag was used - no one made a stone bullet on purpose, they simply found an approximately suitable stone - the rag provided obturation. Instead of stone, petrinal could be loaded with anything that the shooter found unnecessary in his household - broken nails, copper coins, and any metal debris were used. Loading this weapon would not be difficult if the powder pulp did not have the habit of sticking to the walls of the barrel - it was difficult to nail it to the treasury with a ramrod. So, it took at least 2 minutes to shoot. In practice, however, the petrinal was usually not reloaded in battle. Shooting with buckshot or stones was carried out only a few meters and the penetrating force was modest. The best petrinals pierced armor with lead bullets, but were inferior to crossbows in terms of effective fire range - shooting was carried out no further than 15 meters. Petrinals spread to Europe at the same time as crossbows. The crossbow had a much higher rate of fire and effective firing range, but the petrinal had a more convenient shape, it was easier to shoot from it and it was cheaper, and most importantly, when fired it produced a loud bang and a flash of flame - the knight’s horse got scared and threw off the rider. The mercenaries used crossbows, and the townspeople fell in love with petrinals - they liked to make fun of any feudal hillbillies who were unable to accustom horses to the fruits of technical progress. But still, petrinal remained exotic and did not noticeably replace the bow and crossbow. Although it happened that the militias of entire cities were armed with petrinals. At the end of the 15th century, locks began to be attached to the petrinals, and their barrel lengthened - the petrinal turned into an arquebus, but here a new advantage of the traditional type of petrinal was revealed - if in the 14th century, petrinals, like crossbows, could be made in a few large cities , then in the 16th century, the equipment necessary for the production of petrinals became available to rural craftsmen. Self-propelled guns began to be made everywhere, as weapons for militias. Until the end of the 17th century, homemade petrinals (along with bows) were used by the Cossacks.

Arquebus.

In the last quarter of the 15th century, matchlocks and wheel locks appeared in Europe, and the flintlock was invented in Asia during the same period. In regular troops, petrinals began to be replaced by arquebuses, a weapon weighing about 3 kilograms (the first samples were about 4), with a caliber of 13-18 mm and a barrel length of 30-50 calibers. Typically, a 16 mm arquebus would throw a 20 gram bullet with an initial speed of about 300 m/s. The range of aimed fire was 20-25 meters, salvo fire - up to 120 meters. Light guns retained approximately the same characteristics until the beginning of the 19th century—only the lock changed. The rate of fire at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century did not exceed one shot per 3 minutes, but armor penetrated already 25 meters. Heavier and more powerful arquebuses were already used with a bipod, but there were very few of them - gunpowder in the form of pulp was completely unsuitable for quickly loading long barrels - the hour of muskets had not yet struck.

The arquebus was already a fully functional weapon, and if petrinals were used from time to time, mainly for the purpose of frightening the enemy, then arquebusiers settled in European armies in earnest. The typical army of the early 16th century in Europe consisted of about a third cavalry (including knights), a third pikemen, and a third light infantry (halberdiers, archers, crossbowmen and arquebusiers). Considering that some of the horsemen also had arquebuses, about 7-8% of the soldiers were armed with them. At the end of the 16th century, 30% of soldiers already had firearms. Although in these statistics arquebuses and petrinals are counted together, in Poland, for example, back in the 1560s, there were several times more petrinals than arquebuses. In Western Europe, lockless guns fell out of use at the beginning of the 16th century, and in Eastern Europe, only at the end of the 16th, beginning of the 17th.

Locks.

If we talk about locks, then throughout the 16th and the lion's share of the 17th centuries, the wick lock remained the most common - for the sake of its simplicity and reliability. There were Asian and European versions of it - the European one was significantly more complex, but more compact and more reliable in operation. Instead of a burning candle, a wick was used - a rope of rag boiled in gunpowder. The shooter made the wick himself, as well as the bullets using a mold. Standing, for example, on the clock, the shooter constantly had to monitor the smoldering process of the wick - fan it if it began to go out, shake off the ashes, adjust the wick in the jaws of the trigger - time flew by unnoticed. The shelf lid was usually opened simply with a finger, since the rate of fire was very low, there was no point in introducing automation here. In flint and wheel locks the lid was automatic. Here it must be said that the first locks for guns were modifications of crossbow locks. The most primitive Chinese-Arab-Byzantine-Russian design had one spring - a plate of elastic steel - and was a long part swinging on an axis. At the bottom there was a long lever (“shorv”), when, overcoming the resistance of the spring, it was pulled up to the neck of the butt, the trigger with the wick was lowered onto the shelf. In the crossbow version, it simply lowered, releasing the bowstring. This design was simple, but did not provide reliable retention of the bowstring, and was not at all suitable for heavy crossbows. In Asia, they did not attach much importance to crossbows and did not improve the design, but in Europe in the 14th century they began to use a more advanced trigger mechanism with two springs. The first still created a load on the trigger, but this time symbolic. The trigger released the part that held the second spring, which pulled out the bowstring latch. In the wick version, the second spring pressed the trigger with the wick to the shelf. The “Asian” castle appeared in Russia not directly from Asia, but from Novgorod and Pskov, where crossbows of Asian design had previously been produced. The primitive matchlock was not reliable in operation, greatly lengthened the weapon and required a lot of effort when descending, but in Asia itself they did not improve it, since they already had a flintlock.

Indeed, in Asia during this period, a flintlock already existed - when the trigger was cocked, the flint (combining the functions of the shelf lid) was raised, and the flint (sulfur pyrite) was withdrawn for striking. Around 1500, an Arab (actually Turkish) castle appeared in Spain, but mass production of flintlocks in Europe was established only at the end of the 17th century. The European version was much heavier, bulkier and more complex than the Arabic, but it misfired much less often - one in 7-15 shots, and by the end of the 18th century even one in 40 shots. The Arabian lock misfired once in 3-5 shots, but it could easily be turned into a matchlock - you just had to insert the wick instead of the flint. The flint itself had to be changed after 30 shots. More popular in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries was the wheel lock (Leonardo da Vinci's only useful invention). Nothing beat in it for any reason - the fire was extracted by friction. With several turns of the key, a special ribbed wheel was cocked - a rotating flint. When the trigger was pressed, the wheel began to rotate, striking sparks from the flint. The wheel lock almost did not misfire, but its mechanism was sensitive to clogging with gunpowder fumes and flint fragments - it failed after no more than 30 shots. The shooter could bring it back into working condition on his own only if he was a watchmaker in life. The wheel lock was much more expensive than the flintlock, but served in parallel with it until the mid-18th century, until the reliability of the flintlock increased sufficiently. The wheel lock had a closed mechanism and allowed shots to be fired in strong winds. However, in the 16th century, only aristocrats could afford wheeled weapons. In Asia, the wheel lock was not produced at all, as it included some structural elements unfamiliar to the Arabs of the 13th century. The Turks themselves were not affected by the Eastern Middle Ages, but the Turks were only involved in war, while production was carried out by Arab craftsmen, to whom in the 16th century the idea of the possibility of improving technology would have seemed strange, to put it mildly. To complete the picture, we can mention the grater lock, which appeared simultaneously with the wick lock in Europe at the end of the 15th century. Above the shelf there was a flint and a movable ribbed steel. To fire, you had to pull the flint strongly towards yourself using a special handle - it slid along the groove and rubbed against the flint. The lock had no springs. Actually, it was an ordinary household flint mounted above the shelf. There are only a few known examples of weapons with such a lock.

Pishchal.

In Russia, the evolution of firearms went a little differently. Petrinali were not very popular. From the end of the 15th and throughout the 16th century, the weapon of Russian riflemen was the arquebus. Pishcha (“pipes”) in Rus' were the name for any long-barreled weapon, regardless of caliber and purpose, including artillery pieces, but in this case, we mean the Russian analogue of the arquebus. The squeakers had a massive, rough-made iron barrel and the most primitive, Asian-type wick lock, which consisted of only one movable and one elastic part - but the lock was required. Actually, in Russia, as in Asian countries, lockless guns were simply remade, equipped with locks. The Asian lock was cheap and could be installed on a ready-made petrinal - if it was worth it. Compared to the arquebus, the arquebus was a powerful weapon, weighing about 8 kilograms, it had a barrel with a caliber of 18-20 mm and a length of about 40 calibers. The charge of gunpowder was solid, so that the armor was penetrated at a distance three times greater than from an arquebus. Like most arquebuses, there were no sights. Probably, salvo fire could be fired up to 200 meters, however, Russian regulations only provided for firing at a distance of no more than 50 meters. Due to its large weight, the squeak was necessarily supported by a support in the form of a reed. Russian pikas were exported by the thousands to Iran (the United States of America did not yet exist in the 16th century, so protests over these shipments came only from Turkey). Loading the arquebus with powder pulp was not easy. The concentration of firearms in Russia in the 16th century was the same as in Europe - a few percent at the beginning and about a third at the end. But in the Russian army, cavalry then accounted for up to 70% (like, what are the distances?), so by the middle of the century almost all of the infantry found themselves armed with arquebuses. In addition to foot archers, there were also mounted archers, stirrup archers - dragoons. These were armed with matchlock arquebuses of Russian design - a European barrel, an Asian lock (but they were also called arquebuses, - “curtain arquebuses”, since they had a belt for carrying), in addition to the archers, the Russian infantry also consisted of “policemen” (that is, non-residents, not Moscow) Cossacks. These comrades did not have the privileges of archers, did not receive government weapons or salaries, so they were usually armed with bows, but towards the end of the 16th century, more and more often with arquebuses and arquebuses.

Firearms made in Asia.

The Asian (mainly Turkish) arquebuses with a matchlock, and more often a flintlock, had the most finished appearance. They were lighter and smaller in caliber than European models, usually weighing 2.7 kg and had a 13 mm caliber and a 50 caliber barrel. The Asian troops consisted almost entirely of cavalry, so the guns were designed to be convenient for the rider. The Janissaries had wicket arquebuses (with a European type matchlock) of a slightly increased caliber - up to 16 millimeters. The regular Turkish army rearmed itself with flint weapons only in the 60s of the 17th century. Other, heavier guns were not used in Asia until the early 19th century. In general, the spread of firearms in Asia and Africa has been uneven. In China, for example, they did not attach much importance to it. In general, progress in the military field is facilitated by constant wars (which took place in Europe), and all of China was one centralized empire. Border clashes with barbarians and peasant wars were sporadic. Success or failure in such companies did not depend on the armament of the army, but only on the organization of government. The situation was similar in India. In North Africa and Iran, for various reasons, civilization has sunk to a very low level. Weapons production developed only in Turkey and only until the technology capabilities of the Arab civilization were exhausted. In Japan, the most advanced types of firearms for those times began to be actively used in the 16th century, since wars there were ongoing at that time. In China, however, the flintlock was not known until the 19th century, and the Japanese accordingly could not have obtained this technology except from Europe. A feature of Asian weapons production was that the barrels were made of Damascus (elastic steel), which in Europe began to be used for this only at the beginning of the 17th century and only for the most expensive hunting rifles. This allowed the Asians to make their guns lighter and stronger. Military guns in Europe were made with Damascus barrels only if they were rifled. The barrel of a smooth flintlock gun was made of the softest iron, the type from which nails are made. This was done on purpose in order to minimize the likelihood of explosion when fired. The treatment of the internal surface was barbaric by today's standards, but they couldn't do better. Indian weapons of the 15th and early 16th centuries were very similar to European weapons of the era. Portuguese travelers noted that the guns and cannons of the Indians were exactly the same as those in Europe. Later, however, the Indians began to produce Asian (Turkish) style weapons. From the very beginning, the Chinese consistently preferred heavier weapons - serf rifles and muskets. Pistols, for example, were not produced at all in China, and arquebuses were produced in small quantities.

Granular powder.

The first quarter of the 16th century saw a number of important inventions. They learned to clean gunpowder, granulate (grain) and grind it. Previously, attempts had been made to sculpt lumps from the pulp, but the lumps burned unevenly and unpredictably; this type of gunpowder was suitable for cannons, but not for rifles. The grains allowed for faster and more convenient loading, since the pulp stuck to the rough walls of the barrel, which were also covered with a layer of dirt from rust (scale), unburnt remains of gunpowder and particles of lead (this scourge was fought by cleaning the barrels with an abrasive made of brick powder, causing the internal the surface of the barrel deteriorated even more, and the caliber gradually increased - but at least the bullet could be hammered). The grains rolled safely to the treasury. There was no longer any need to vigorously use the ramrod for some time, scraping the charge from the walls and nailing it to the fuse. In addition, during the grinding process (by friction against each other), the surface of the grains was strengthened and acquired water-repellent properties. This, of course, was not about liquid water, but about atmospheric moisture. Gunpowder in the form of pulp was terribly hygroscopic - at every opportunity the soldier had to dry it in the sun or calcinate it. But even in this case, the gunpowder in the form of pulp deteriorated irreversibly within 3 years. Granular gunpowder could be stored in arsenals for up to 60 years. This technology spread throughout the entire world interested in gunpowder almost instantly, but its implementation did not proceed so quickly - ground grain (“pearl”) gunpowder was expensive. Until the mid-17th century, it was produced primarily by state arsenals. Not only militias, but also mercenaries, often continued to use gunpowder pulp, which, moreover, could be produced artisanally (you only had to buy sulfur, but by the 17th century, the production of saltpeter was established everywhere). It was only with the spread of regular armies in the late 17th century that grain gunpowder completely replaced pulp, although Cossacks often used homemade gunpowder as early as the 18th century. Granulated gunpowder, due to purification and better combustion conditions, was one and a half to two times more powerful than pulp. This was most relevant for guns, and they were almost exclusively state-owned.

Paper cartridge.

Almost simultaneously, around 1530, a muzzle unitary cartridge made of paper appeared and was successfully used in Spain. A bullet was glued into a paper cylinder and gunpowder was poured into it. Before this, the shooter carried bullets and wads in a bag, and gunpowder in a horn or in charges. The latter was more convenient, since it was difficult to pour the exact amount of gunpowder from the horn. The main thing was that there was a risk of adding too much. When loading, the horn shooter poured gunpowder onto the shelf and into the barrel, then hammered a wad into the barrel, then a bullet, then another wad. The first wad provided obturation and protected the gunpowder from spilling out. The second is a bullet from falling out. Having a paper cartridge, you had to bite it, pour some of the gunpowder onto the shelf, the rest into the barrel, then hammer the bullet into the barrel along with the paper. Therefore, by the way, it was impossible to shoot from a flint or matchlock weapon up, down, or in a strong wind (for example, while galloping). When the trigger was pulled, the shelf opened, and the gunpowder could be blown off it or spilled out under the influence of gravity. The shooter glued the cartridges himself. The cartridge was used by the imperials (Spain and Germany at that moment were in a union and, together with a lot of other countries, made up the Holy Roman Empire of the Austrian Habsburgs). However, then the initiative faded. The second time, only Gustavus Adolphus managed to force the musketeers to buy paper and glue cartridges at the beginning of the 17th century. But the paper cartridge was able to finally supplant other forms of loading in armies only at the end of the 17th century. But this is in Europe. In the American colonies, where paper was not produced, horns containing gunpowder were used for loading throughout the 18th century. In Russia, the paper cartridge was introduced only by Peter the Great, and before that, from the end of the 15th century, chargers were used. In Turkey, the paper cartridge appeared in the 19th century, but short and light Turkish guns were not difficult to load anyway. The paper stuck to the bullet did not contribute to shooting accuracy in any way.

Blunderbuss.

During the same period, such a projectile as shot appeared. Before this, guns were sometimes loaded with chopped lead or chopped nails. Or small pebbles. From the beginning of the 16th century, pieces of lead began to be rolled and then cast by pouring molten metal into water from special shot-casting towers. Lead droplets acquired a spherical shape in flight. Round shot gave better accuracy and lost less speed in flight. Cannon grapeshot made from lead bullets also began to be used. The find was rifle buckshot for hunters - it was impossible to kill several small birds at once with a bow or crossbow. The military reacted cooler to this invention. Buckshot was used extremely rarely for conventional military rifles. However, for military purposes, a special gun was developed for shooting buckshot - a blunderbuss. The blunderbuss had a caliber of 25 mm and a barrel length of 18 calibers and threw out from 5 to 12 buckshots with a diameter of 6-8 millimeters with an initial speed of about 250 m/s. The blunderbuss was a purely cavalry weapon and, therefore, had first a wheel lock and then a flintlock. Shooting was usually carried out no further than 10 meters, but buckshot was dangerous up to 30 meters. In Russia, blunderbuss appeared only from the time of Peter the Great, and in Asia they were not used at all. In Europe, until the end of the 18th century, half of the cavalry, except for the dragoons, were armed with blunderbuss. A characteristic feature of the blunderbuss was the bell on the barrel, a detail that greatly captured the imagination of the draftsmen. The bell had nothing to do with increasing the spread of buckshot; it only facilitated loading, which turned out to be more troublesome than with bullet guns. The shooter poured gunpowder from one charge into the barrel, drove the wad, poured shot from another charge, and drove the second wad. There were also double-sided charges with a partition inside, containing gunpowder at one end and shot at the other. But the paper cartridge for blunderbusses was not used. The ramrod was worn separately for the blunderbuss. The rate of fire was the same as that of the arquebus. The blunderbuss weighed no more than 3 kilograms. In the middle of the 18th century, the bell began to be flattened vertically, which made it possible to apply sighting devices to the blunderbuss - a completely unnecessary design element for this weapon, by the way.

Gun

In addition to arquebuses and blunderbusses, from the beginning of the 16th century, cavalry began to arm themselves with pistols. Attempts to make a firearm for one hand took place at the end of the 15th century, but before the advent of the wheel lock in the West and the flintlock in the East, nothing worthwhile could be depicted in this regard. European military pistols had a caliber of 17-20 mm and a barrel length of 13-15 calibers, their weight reached 1.7-2 kilograms. Due to low reliability, pistols existed only in pairs. The initial bullet speed was sometimes only 100 m/s. The dispersion of the bullets did not allow for precise shooting beyond a few meters, while the lethal force was only sufficient up to 30 meters. The penetrating force was very insignificant - not only the cuirass, but also the frontal bone sometimes served as an insurmountable barrier. This had to be taken into account when attempting suicide. Asian pistols had a smaller caliber - 10-13 mm and weighed no more than a kilogram. The aiming was somewhat better, only the bullet became harmless at 20 meters. Pistols were sometimes double-barreled, but double-barreled pistols began to be widely used by cavalry (and even elite units) only at the end of the 18th century. Some pistol samples had a barrel length of up to 30 calibers. Rather, such a weapon should be considered as an arquebus without a butt. The ballistic qualities and weight of such pistols also corresponded to those of arquebuses. However, the practical accuracy of shooting was below any criticism. In modern self-loading weapons, the recoil impulse that deflects the barrel occurs only when the bullet has already left. In a muzzle-loading pistol, the recoil began to deflect the barrel as soon as the bullet began to move in the barrel, and it took a long time to move. Considering that the recoil impulse was not small (about 75% of the recoil of a 12-gauge hunting rifle), such a pistol could hardly be held with one hand. Rather, in such conditions, one could expect that by the time the bullet crawls to the muzzle, the barrel will already be pointing up almost vertically.

Musket.

Besides the paper cartridge, another invention of imperial military thought at the beginning of the 16th century was the musket. The musket was the same arquebus, only of double dimensions. A 22 mm caliber barrel with a length of 70 calibers ejected a bullet weighing 55 grams with an initial speed of over 500 m/s. From a technical point of view, the production of muskets was associated only with the production of granulated gunpowder, without which such a long barrel would not be able to be loaded, and the improvement of metalworking technologies, without which such a long barrel would not be possible to produce. The prototype of the musket was a number of large arquebuses that were in use since the end of the 15th century; from them the musket borrowed the bipod and the second crew number, but thanks to a significant increase in muzzle energy, the musket acquired completely new tactical properties. The salvo firing range reached 200, and according to some regulations even 240 meters, and at this entire distance the musket pierced armor. So, if arquebuses were rarely fired in volleys over a long distance, since the effectiveness of their shots decreased with distance, then muskets could be effectively fired across an area, no matter who was in that area. A bullet from a musket stopped a knight's horse as if it were running into a wall. Muskets were first used at the Battle of Pavia, and they earned the highest praise - eyewitnesses told tales about them (for example, that a bullet pierced three horses), and chroniclers declared the battle itself won through the use of muskets (which, of course, was not true). The musket often had sighting devices, the single firing range was up to 35 meters, and loading using granulated gunpowder required 2 minutes. In the 17th century, using a paper cartridge, the best marksman in Gustavus Adolphus' army loaded a musket in 50 seconds. The musket usually had a second calculation number only in the 16th century; at the beginning of the 17th the Swedes abolished the support; in the second half of this century, the support ceased to be used by other peoples. The weight of the musket gradually decreased from 8 kilograms at the beginning of the 16th century to 6 at the end of the 17th century. From the beginning of the 17th century, muskets of reduced caliber 20 and even 17.5 mm began to appear, but until the mid-18th century, mainly 20-22 mm ones were used. From the end of the 17th century, the musket received a flintlock and bayonet and became a fusée. The Russian army rearmed with European-style muskets at the beginning of the 17th century. In Asia, muskets were used only by the Japanese, but they were not made in Japan itself. Muskets were very popular among pirates and sailors in general - they fired twice as far as arquebuses, which was important during a firefight between ships, and most importantly, musket bullets broke through one-inch boards - it was impossible to hide from them behind the bulwarks. The flintlock musket without a bayonet became the favorite weapon of both the Boers and black Africans (such guns were called “long Dutchmen”). The advantages of such a weapon when encountering a large animal were obvious - he fired, and everything was clear. The lion is not a cuirassier's horse; such a bullet simply demolished him. Ukrainian Serdyuks were armed with muskets of a special design - the barrel was from a Russian musket, and the butt and lock from a Turkish arquebus. Of particular note are the Chinese muskets. This weapon also appeared among the Chinese at the beginning of the 16th century and was a fortress gun for firing buckshot, somewhat reduced for transportability. The caliber of Chinese muskets was 26-30 millimeters, the barrel length exceeded 50 calibers and their muzzle energy was not inferior to European models. Such a musket could throw up to 80 grams of buckshot. Since its spread compensated for the inaccuracy of the flight of each buckshot, aimed shooting could be carried out up to 70 meters, and salvo fire - up to 200 meters. Such guns were useful to Chinese soldiers to scare off nomads and disperse rebellious crowds. The Chinese musket weighed 6-7 kilograms, was operated by one person and had a matchlock. Flint production has never been mastered in China.

Fortress gun.

Since the beginning of the 15th century, in addition to wearable guns, serfs began to be used. This type of gun with two design numbers and the need to use a bipod was used until the end of the 19th century for the defense of fortresses. In Russia, such weapons were called “gakovnitsy” or “zatina squeaks.” Already from the names it is clear that this weapon had a hook (hook), which clung to the outer surface of the wall (tyna). When fired, the hook absorbed the recoil - and there was plenty to take - the caliber of fortress guns reached 20 - 30 mm, with a barrel length of up to 120 calibers. Fortress guns occupied a position midway between hand weapons and artillery. In the 15th and early 16th centuries in Rus' and Poland, serf guns with a caliber of 30 mm and a barrel 50 calibers long were popular. It was possible to shoot from such a large crowd of enemies from 300 meters, plus buckshot was effective at another 100 meters. The big problem, however, was loading - the powder pulp did not want to go to a depth of one and a half meters. As a result, serf guns of that era were often adapted to be loaded from the treasury - but in this form they still loaded slowly, and also became expensive and dangerous. Such a squeaker weighed up to 40 kilograms. She didn’t have a castle, and why? By the end of the 16th century, interest in serf guns in Rus' disappeared. The only time this idea was returned to was in the mid-19th century. In Asia, from Turkey to China, on the contrary, serf guns received a lot of attention from the end of the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century. Asian fortress guns (almost entirely matchlock) had absolutely fantastic barrels - up to 3.3 meters in length. But this, of course, is a record. For military purposes, rifled guns were made with a caliber of 20 mm, a barrel length of 110 calibers and a weight of 25-30 kg. These could be fired accurately at 300 meters. To reload, a truce was probably concluded with the enemy. All Asian guns were loaded only from the barrel. Another version of the Asian serf gun was a smooth one - for shooting buckshot. The caliber was from 26 to 30 mm, and the barrel was 60-80 calibers. Such a gun threw out less buckshot than a falconet, but the buckshot flew more closely and further. The firing range reached 150 meters, but loading was also terribly slow. Such guns had a large bell and weighed no more than 20 kg. Due to the prevalence of powerful serf guns in Asian countries, falconettes were used significantly less. European fortress guns were shorter and had a caliber of no more than 25 mm; in terms of muzzle energy, they differed little from muskets. The trunk was no longer than 1.7 meters. Often three barrels were combined on one machine, so that the weight of the system was the same 30-40 kg. Loading from the breech was not uncommon, but rifled barrels were not used. In the 18th century, European serf guns had flintlocks. The prevalence of serf rifles in Europe was not great, since when firing bullets they were little superior to muskets, and when firing grapeshot they could not compete with falconets. The European ones did not have the valuable tactical capabilities inherent in Asian serf rifles, but they were cheaper and fired not much less often than muskets. They were mainly used for shooting bullets over an area at a distance of up to 250 m

Ammunition for firearms.

Typically, gunpowder contained about 60% saltpeter and 20% each of sulfur and charcoal - although, in terms of the ratio of parts, there were many variations. Fundamentally important, however, was only saltpeter. Sulfur was added for ignition - it itself ignited at a very low temperature, coal was only fuel. Sometimes sulfur was not put into the gunpowder at all - this just meant that the ignition hole would have to be made wider. Sometimes, sulfur was not mixed into gunpowder, but poured directly onto the shelf. Charcoal could be replaced by ground brown coal, dried sawdust, cornflowers (blue gunpowder), cotton wool (white gunpowder), petroleum (Greek fire), etc. All this, however, was rarely done, since charcoal was available, and there was little point in replacing it with something else. So, gunpowder should definitely be considered any mixture of saltpeter (an oxidizing agent) with some kind of combustible substance. Initially, gunpowder (literally “dust”) was a fine powder, “pulp”, consisting of, in addition to the listed ingredients, all kinds of debris. When fired, at least half of the gunpowder flew out of the barrel unburnt. Iron buckshot or stones were sometimes used as projectiles for hand weapons, but most often a round lead bullet was used. It was round, of course, only immediately after production; the soft lead was deformed during storage, then it was flattened with a ramrod when loading, then the bullet was deformed when fired - in general, after flying out of the barrel, it was no longer particularly round. The irregular shape of the projectile had a bad effect on shooting accuracy.

Properties of gunpowder

Black powder is the oldest explosive. For a long time (almost 500 years) it remained the only multifunctional explosive - it was used for military purposes for firearms, grenades, and rock blasting.

Let us briefly consider the classification of explosives (according to A.G. Gorst Gunpowder and Explosives, M., 1972

link.).

From a practical point of view, explosives can be divided into the following groups:

Group I - Initiating (primary) explosives. Group II - High explosives or crushing (secondary) explosives. Group III - Propellant explosives or powders.

The main features for dividing explosives into groups are: the mode of explosive transformation characteristic of each of them (combustion or detonation) and the conditions for its excitation.

A characteristic type of explosive transformation for substances of the first group is detonation; their combustion is extremely unstable and often turns into detonation. In this case, the chemical reaction propagates throughout the substance along with the shock wave front.

(Detonation (French detoner - explode, from Latin detono - thunder), a process of chemical transformation of an explosive substance, accompanied by the release of energy and propagating through the substance in the form of a wave from one layer to another at supersonic speed. [Great Soviet Encyclopedia])

Typical representatives of initiating explosives are acetone peroxide, mercury fulminate, and lead azide.

High explosives can burn under certain conditions, but their combustion can lead to detonation. Examples are nitroglycerin, TNT, picric acid, etc.

For propellant explosives or powders (which includes black powder), the characteristic type of explosive transformation is combustion, which does not turn into detonation. These substances are suitable for imparting motion to a bullet or projectile in the bore of a weapon, as well as to missiles. Currently, smokeless powders based on nitrocellulose are widely used.

A comprehensive description of the properties of black powder is given in the book by A. Stettbacher Gunpowder and Explosives, ONTI, 1936

link. Here is a fragment of this monograph.

“Good gunpowder resists being crushed between the fingers, does not stain your hands, and, when poured onto paper, leaves no dust at all. When a sample falls from a height of 1 m onto a hard surface, the gunpowder should not produce dust. A small pile of gunpowder, lit on paper, should quickly ignite, producing vertically rising smoke, without the paper catching fire. If the gunpowder leaves stains or particles of solid combustion products, then mixing of the composition was insufficient.

The moisture content of gunpowder ranges from 0.8 to 1.5%. Good brands of gunpowder contain no more than 1% moisture, since even tenths of a percent of excess moisture changes the ballistic properties and reduces the initial velocity. Damp gunpowder still retains its flammability and explosive properties; Only with a water content of 15% is the ability to ignite lost.

Black powder is easily ignited by flame and spark; A lightning strike always causes a large explosion. Small amounts of gunpowder only ignite; large ones, on the contrary, explode strongly. The flash point is about 300°C, therefore higher than that of high explosives. If the heating is carried out slowly, then all the sulfur can be distilled without igniting the gunpowder. In airless space, gunpowder burns slowly. It is necessary to note its relation to gases. In a hydrogen atmosphere, gunpowder glows, but ignition does not occur; Gunpowder burns with difficulty in nitrogen and quite easily in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide.

In terms of its sensitivity to impact and friction, gunpowder is one of the safest explosives to handle; however, this property of gunpowder cannot be overestimated. When a 10 kg load falls from a height of more than 45 cm, a gunpowder explosion occurs; If the fall height is below 35 cm, a failure occurs. The harder the impacting parts, the easier the explosion occurs, most easily when hitting steel (iron) on steel (iron), then brass on iron, more difficult when copper hits bronze and bronze hits wood.

Black powder produces a useful amount of gas during an explosion equal to only 43%, while the solid residue (smoke) makes up almost 3/5 of the total weight of the gunpowder. In general, we can say that the gases formed during the explosion occupy about 280 volumes of the taken gunpowder, and the pressure on the walls of the vessel reaches 6400 at.

The combustion of gunpowder is so complex that the decomposition reaction cannot be represented by a single equation that correctly reflects the process.

Stoichiometrically, the decomposition of gunpowder could be represented by the following simple equation

2KNO3 (74.9%) + 3C (13.3%) + S (11.8%) = K2S + 3CO2 + N2

However, the smell and color observed during the explosion indicate that much more decomposition products are being produced. "

Experiments with igniting samples of black powder showed that our gunpowder was not of the best quality, since it slightly charred the paper and left a small amount of carbon particles after combustion. However, it is suitable for experiments demonstrating the properties of propellants.

How the Chinese invented gunpowder without two out of three ingredients, or two hits - eight holes :o)

Hello, dear readers.

Just yesterday, Ramzan Magomedov published a continuation of the former conspiracy theorist’s confession, where the author states how he and his comrades “cynically manipulated the minds of readers.”

Naturally, the conspiracy theorist’s former comrades do exactly this every time. I didn't have to look far for confirmation.

Another nonsense from Sedition is intended to put its readers into a state of mental stupor. An example for us today would be an attempt to convince us that the Chinese could not have invented gunpowder simply from the physical conditions of their existence “in ancient times.” And all, they say, because to produce gunpowder, in addition to coal, sulfur and saltpeter are needed:

Let's look into the question: was there native sulfur in China, was there native sulfur in China... science is not silent about that :o)

The book “An Experience in Descriptive Mineralogy” contains a large amount of information about how native sulfur is obtained in nature. It turns out that there are many ways to form native sulfur:

I won’t give everything (if anyone is interested, check it out at the link above) I’ll note in passing that sulfur is not only yellow :o)

Native sulfur on the eastern edge of Eurasia is not at all uncommon

Pay attention to the types of formation of native sulfur and estimate how many places on our planet conditions suitable for one or another type existed and exist today

There is a continuous transformation and movement of sulfur (from one state to another, from one form or place to another), that is, sulfur is similar in mobility to mercury. Claim that

“...native sulfur was found only in one place on planet Earth - in the crater of Mount Etna, in Sicily.”

maybe people who either have not delved into the history of the issue or are deliberately misleading their readers. For example, native sulfur can be formed during the combustion of coal deposits in nature:

What, coal did not exist on the planet until the Middle Ages (the time the Chinese invented gunpowder)? And they didn’t burn even once? Nowhere, nowhere?

And here is this, a specific mention of native sulfur deposits in China:

Actually, in China

“Coal reserves are quite large; estimated reserves of this natural resource are about 1 trillion tons. It is mined in the central provinces and northwest of China. The largest deposits are located in the provinces of Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi and Shanxi.
China has great shale potential from which shale gas can be extracted. Its production is just developing, but in a few years the volume of production of this mineral will be greatly increased.”

And, closing the question of the presence of native sulfur in China, another quote from the book:

A couple of kopecks about the uniqueness of Sicily as a source of sulfur in Europe: there are objections from Iceland :o)

The following statement

First, about global trade relations. There were trade ties, there were. And the Great Silk Road existed from the 2nd century BC to the 15th century. Apparently, the author does not know this at all. He probably “forgot” that gunpowder was invented not during the time of the Egyptian pharaohs, but in the Middle Ages.

I’ll talk a little more about the production of saltpeter “grandmother’s way” :o)

"Saltpeter production plant

Artificial production of saltpeter. Before the advent of Chilean potassium nitrate, it was partly extracted from natural deposits, and partly it was prepared artificially in the so-called. saltpeter, or piles; such a S. was called a bead. When artificially obtaining sulfur, they tried to artificially create the same conditions and cause the same processes that caused the formation of natural deposits of sulfur. For this purpose, they made a mixture of various kinds of decomposing organic (nitrogenous) waste with soil containing lime, ash, etc. substances. This mixture was placed in heaps and left to lie in the air for a certain time, watering it from time to time with water, urine, infusion of manure, etc. Under the influence of heat, atmospheric oxygen and nitrate bacteria, nitric acid appears in the heaps, which with lime produces nitrogen-lime salt. To obtain S., the heaps were leached with water, potash or ash was added to the solution (chalk was precipitated) and concentrated using the usual methods. Nitrogenous materials for constructing saltpeter tanks included manure, humus, blood from slaughterhouses, waste from tanneries and glue factories, excrement, urine, plants rich in potassium salts (for example, nettle, sunflower, beet leaves, etc.), etc. To neutralize the resulting of nitric acid, chalk, marl, garbage from buildings, lime waste from soda factories, etc. were placed in heaps. To facilitate air access into the heaps, they tried to make them as loose as possible. For this purpose, brushwood, straw, etc. were placed in them. To speed up the appearance of saltpeter bacteria, soil from old heaps was added to new heaps. The piles were placed in dry places that were not flooded with water; they had different shapes (prisms, pyramids, etc.), were placed in pits (at that time the process of formation of soil was slow) or on the surface of the earth. Sometimes a roof was placed over the heaps to protect them from rapid drying out and erosion by rainwater, and the heaps were placed on ground compacted with clay; sometimes they were placed in sheds, etc. The height of the piles was made such that it was convenient to water them; Watering was done sparingly to avoid dampness. Shortly before the heap fully matured (2 - 5 years), watering with organic matter was stopped. To speed up nitrification, the piles were shifted from time to time, trying to move the bottom layer up and the top layer down. In Russia, saltpeter was made mainly in Little Russia and the Volga. In the Volga region, saltpeter factories were established by Peter the Great, in Spassky district. Kazan province. in the village Bulgarians, near Astrakhan and near Saratov.

I use this technology to create a saltpeter barn near the fortress, placing 5-6 families of slaves there. The outhouses are cleaned, the stables are cleaned by birds, etc. There is sawdust near a construction site

Of course, the process is long, but in 3-5 years you can build a gunpowder factory.”

Hence the remark

Let me remind you that gunpowder was invented by Chinese alchemists. We tried not for firearms :o)

Scientists test medieval gunpowder recipes on a replica of a 15th-century cannon

Gunpowder—as opposed to modern smokeless powder—is little used in modern weapons these days, although it is still useful for historical weapons and remains popular for fireworks and other pyrotechnics . An interdisciplinary team of chemists and historians wanted to learn more about how different gunpowder recipes evolved over the centuries as master gunners tweaked the basic components to achieve better results. The researchers not only described their findings, but even tested several recipes by firing a replica of a 15th-century stone cannon at the West Point Proving Ground.

Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is chemically quite simple. It is a mixture of sulfur and charcoal (carbon), which serve as fuel, and potassium nitrate (KNO 3), an oxidizing agent also known as saltpeter. It was first used for warfare around 904 AD. in China, and by the end of the 13th century it spread throughout Europe and Asia. Modern black powder recipes call for 75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal and 10% sulfur. But medieval artillerymen experimented with many different recipes over the centuries, many of which included additives such as camphor, lacquer or brandy, the purpose of which is still unknown.

By the end of the 14th century , manufacturers discovered that it was possible to improve the performance of gunpowder through a wet grinding process called "corning". Some kind of liquid (often distilled alcohol) was added as the other ingredients were ground together, producing a wet paste. The paste was rolled into balls and then dried, and these balls were crushed in a mortar by a shooter just before it was used.

So-called serpentine dry mixture powder was most often used in Europe in the 15th century. The standard procedure involved grinding the ingredients together using a mortar and pestle, and grinding these ingredients to a fine powder could take up to 24 hours. The smaller the particle size and the more thorough the mixing, the faster and more efficiently the gunpowder will burn.

Co-authors Dawn Riegner and Clifford Rogers, a chemist and historian, respectively, from the United States Military Academy (also known as West Point), decided to analyze the energy released just before and during combustion using various gunpowder recipes from the Middle Ages. Together with other co-authors, they hoped to better understand the purpose of creating different compounds and learn more about the technical details of early gunpowder production processes.

First, they identified over 20 different recipes recorded in medieval texts between 1336 and 1449 AD , and followed these recipes to make their own batches of gunpowder. They used differential scanning calorimetry to measure combustion onset (pre-ignition) and combustion propagation rate, and analyzed residues for each of the recipes to determine combustion efficiency. The team also compared different sample preparation methods and the effectiveness of recipes with and without additives, and conducted long-range gun experiments.

The team found that between 1338 and 1400 AD, recipes increased the percentage of saltpeter and decreased the amount of charcoal. This would have reduced the heating value, but would also have been safer for medieval gunners on the battlefield. After 1400, gunners changed the relative components slightly, reducing the saltpeter slightly and increasing the sulfur and charcoal contents markedly, perhaps to find the optimal balance between gunner safety and combustion heat.

“It has been suggested that one reason why gunpowder recipes changed over time was the need for safer recipes that would not endanger medieval artillerymen or cause damage to cannons,” the authors write.

The fact that the two oldest recipes they tested had the highest combustion temperatures seems to support this hypothesis.

"Gunners may have stopped using these recipes because they had such a high level of thermodynamic activity," they added.

As for supplements, most did not result in a noticeable increase in energy production, with the exception of the combination of camphor and ammonium chloride. The authors speculate that water or brandy, for example, may have served some other purpose, which further research may reveal.

“It is clear that medieval artillery masters developed, at least in some respects, a solid practical understanding of the variables that affected the effective power output obtained from gunpowder charges, including purity of ingredients, varieties of charcoal, grain size, and mixing methods,” the authors write. "They understood, for example, that a cannonball was thrown by gas pressure rather than flame, and that willow charcoal cooked in a closed container was far superior to oak charcoal made in a traditional pit."

However, scientists have also noted that progress in achieving the ideal ratio of ingredients has been slow , sometimes taking a step backwards, which they attribute to physical changes occurring in the artillery used over the same period (gun size, shot types, and gunpowder charge, for example).

According to the authors, more research is needed to determine which recipe is best suited to specific historical contexts. They plan to conduct further research using different methods that will help them compare the surface area and spacing of ingredients in different recipes, which should shed more light on medieval processing methods, writes ARSTechnica.